Ethanol specifically decreases peroxisome proliferator activated receptor beta in B12 oligodendrocyte-like cells

Glial abnormalities in substance use disorders and depression: does shared glutamatergic dysfunction contribute to comorbidity?

OBJECTIVES

Preclinical and clinical research in neuropsychiatric disorders, particularly mood and substance use disorders, have historically focused on neurons; however, glial cells-astrocytes, microglia, and oligodendrocytes - also play key roles in these disorders.

METHODS

Peer-reviewed PubMed/Medline articles published through December 2012 were identified using the following keyword combinations: glia, astrocytes, oligodendrocytes/glia, microglia, substance use, substance abuse, substance dependence, alcohol, opiate, opioid, cocaine, psychostimulants, stimulants, and glutamate.

RESULTS

Depressive and substance use disorders are highly comorbid, suggesting a common or overlapping aetiology and pathophysiology. Reduced astrocyte cell number occurs in both disorders. Altered glutamate neurotransmission and metabolism - specifically changes in the levels/activity of transporters, receptors, and synaptic proteins potentially related to synaptic physiology - appear to be salient features of both disorders. Glial cell pathology may also underlie the pathophysiology of both disorders via impaired astrocytic production of neurotrophic factors. Microglial/neuroinflammatory pathology is also evident in both depressive and substance use disorders. Finally, oligodendrocyte impairment decreases myelination and impairs expression of myelin-related genes in both substance use and depressive disorders.

CONCLUSIONS

Glial-mediated glutamatergic dysfunction is a common neuropathological pathway in both substance use and depression. Therefore, glutamatergic neuromodulation is a rational drug target in this comorbidity.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor and retinoic x receptor in alcoholic liver disease

A growing number of new studies demonstrate that nuclear receptors are involved in the development of alcoholic liver disease (ALD). Ethanol metabolism and RXR/PPAR functions are tightly interconnected in the liver. Several ethanol metabolizing enzymes are potently regulated by RXR and PPARα after alcohol consumption. The increased ethanol metabolism, in turn, leads to alteration of the redox balance of the cells and impairment of RXR/PPAR functions by direct and indirect effects of acetaldehyde, resulting in deranged lipid metabolism, oxidative stress, and release of proinflammatory cytokines. The use of animal models played a crucial role in understanding the molecular mechanisms of ALD. In this paper we summarize the reciprocal interactions between ethanol metabolism and RXR/PPAR functions. In conclusion, RXR and PPAR play a central role in the onset and perpetuation of the mechanisms underling all steps of the clinical progression in ALD.

PPARalpha and PPARbeta are differentially affected by ethanol and the ethanol metabolite acetaldehyde in the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line

The activity and/or the level of the peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) in liver and oligodendrocytes are regulated by ethanol. Despite the association between ethanol consumption and breast cancer risk, and the increasing evidence for an involvement of PPARs in some cancers, there have been no studies on the effect of ethanol or its metabolite acetaldehyde on PPARs in breast cancer. Using the MCF-7 breast cancer cell line, we examined the relationship between ethanol and its metabolite acetaldehyde on PPARalpha and PPARbeta transactivation. Ethanol (20 mM) reduced the potency of the PPARbeta ligand GW0742, evident by a rightward shift in the GW0742 dose-response curve, whereas for PPARalpha activation by GW7647, ethanol mediated its effects primarily through reducing efficacy as evidenced by a reduction in maximal response. Using the enzyme inhibitors 4-methylpyrazole and cyanamide and the metabolite acetaldehyde, we showed that PPARalpha and PPARbeta are differentially modulated by ethanol and acetaldehyde. While acetaldehyde is responsible for the inhibition of PPARalpha ligand inhibition with a concentration that inhibits 50% of activity (IC50) of 111 nM, acetaldehyde has no effect on PPARbeta or its ligand activation. Instead, inhibition of PPARbeta transactivation is mediated directly by ethanol. The differential effect of ethanol and acetaldehyde on PPARalpha and PPARbeta further underscores the differences between these receptors and may indicate the relevance of PPARs in the effects of ethanol in the human breast.

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma up-regulates the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic protein in neurons and induces mitochondrial stabilization and protection against oxidative stress and apoptosis

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) has been proposed as a therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases because of its anti-inflammatory action in glial cells. However, PPARgamma agonists preventbeta-amyloid (Abeta)-induced neurodegeneration in hippocampal neurons, and PPARgamma is activated by the nerve growth factor (NGF) survival pathway, suggesting a neuroprotective anti-inflammatory independent action. Here we show that the PPARgamma agonist rosiglitazone (RGZ) protects hippocampal and dorsal root ganglion neurons against Abeta-induced mitochondrial damage and NGF deprivation-induced apoptosis, respectively, and promotes PC12 cell survival. In neurons and in PC12 cells RGZ protective effects are associated with increased expression of the Bcl-2 anti-apoptotic protein. NGF-differentiated PC12 neuronal cells constitutively overexpressing PPARgamma are resistant to Abeta-induced apoptosis and morphological changes and show functionally intact mitochondria and no increase in reactive oxygen species when challenged with up to 50 microM H2O2. Conversely, cells expressing a dominant negative mutant of PPARgamma show increased Abeta-induced apoptosis and disruption of neuronal-like morphology and are highly sensitive to oxidative stress-induced impairment of mitochondrial function. Cells overexpressing PPARgamma present a 4- to 5-fold increase in Bcl-2 protein content, whereas in dominant negative PPARgamma-expressing cells, Bcl-2 is barely detected. Bcl-2 knockdown by small interfering RNA in cells overexpressing PPARgamma results in increased sensitivity to Abeta and oxidative stress, further suggesting that Bcl-2 up-regulation mediates PPARgamma protective effects. PPARgamma prosurvival action is independent of the signal-regulated MAPK or the Akt prosurvival pathways. Altogether, these data suggest that PPARgamma supports survival in neurons in part through a mechanism involving increased expression of Bcl-2.

Peroxisome Proliferator-activated Receptor γ Is a Novel Target of the Nerve Growth Factor Signaling Pathway in PC12 Cells

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma), a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily, is subject to considerable interest because of its role in adipocyte differentiation, metabolic control, and anti-inflammatory action. PPARgamma research in brain cells is presently focused on glial PPARgamma because of its potential as a pharmacological target in the treatment of neurodegenerative diseases with an inflammatory component. In neurons PPARgamma function is far from clear, and PPARgamma agonist-dependent and -independent effects on cell survival or differentiation have been reported. We used PC12 cells, widely used to study neuronal signaling, such as nerve growth factor (NGF)-induced differentiation and survival or epidermal growth factor-dependent cell proliferation to dissect the possible involvement of PPARgamma in these pathways. We show that NGF but not epidermal growth factor increases the transcriptional activity of PPARgamma, and modulates the expression of this transcription factor. Because NGF signals through the tyrosine kinase (TrkA) NGF receptor and/or the p75NTR receptor, we used rescue experiments with a PC12 cell mutant lacking TrkA to show that NGF-induced PPARgamma activation is dependent on TrkA activation. Our results point out PPARgamma as a novel target of the TrkA-mediated neuronal cell survival and differentiating pathway and suggest a potential new inflammatory-independent therapeutic approach for pharmacological intervention in neurological disorders.