Prevalence and molecular identification of Cryptosporidium isolates from pet lizards and snakes in Italy

Occurrence and molecular characterization of Giardia spp. in snakes from China

Giardia intestinalis is a major diarrhea-causing parasite that colonizes the proximal small intestine of humans and various other mammalian species, including pets and livestock. Despite its global occurrence, there is limited information about the epidemiology of Giardia in reptiles, particularly snakes. The aim of this study was to amplify the beta-giardin (bg) gene of Giardia by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), followed by a comparative evolutionary tree analysis to determine the occurrence and molecular characterization of Giardia in snakes. We collected 603 asymptomatic samples from 26 provinces in China, representing species such as Pantherophis guttatus, Pantherophis obsoletus, Pituophis melanoleucus, Thamnophis sirtalis, Lampropeltis getula, and Heterodon nasicus. Ultimately, a occurrence of Giardia infection of 4.15 % was detected in these snakes, with corn snakes (Pantherophis guttatus) having a significantly higher occurrence than other species. Molecular analysis identified assemblage F as the predominant genotype, and also identified an assemblage B that can infect humans and a variety of mammals. The results of this study illustrate the potential risk of transmission of Giardia from snakes to humans, especially in environments where close contact occurs. The present epidemiological study examines epidemiological investigations of Giardia in reptiles, provides data to understand the zoonotic risk of Giardia, and emphasizes the need for targeted surveillance, stringent hygiene measures, and public awareness campaigns to reduce these risks.

Cryptosporidium spp. in captive snakes from 26 provinces in China: Prevalence, molecular characterization, and symptoms

Snakes are sometimes regarded as pets and are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Cryptosporidium spp. are frequently identified in snakes, representing an important pathogen and causing gastrointestinal diseases. Current data indicate that risk factors for infection and patterns of clinical symptom presentation may differ among Cryptosporidium spp. To better understand the infection status by Cryptosporidium spp., fecal samples were collected from 603 asymptomatic and 147 symptomatic snakes in 26 provinces of China. These samples came from Elaphe guttata, Elaphe obsoleta, Pituophis melanoleucus, Thamnophis sirtalis, Lampropeltis getulus, and Heterodon nasicus. The partial small subunit (SSU) rRNA gene was amplified using nested polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to investigate the infection rate of Cryptosporidium spp., and to assess evolutionary relationships and genetic characterization. A prevalence of 20% was recorded in asymptomatic snakes, with age identified as a significant risk factor. In contrast, 70% of symptomatic snakes were positive for Cryptosporidium spp., with Cryptosporidium serpentis and Cryptosporidium varanii (syn. C. saurophilum). Further analysis revealed a potential association between C. serpentis and regurgitation, and C. varanii and diarrhea, while neither species was linked to flatulence. To our knowledge, this is the first study to report Cryptosporidium spp. and associated clinical signs in symptomatic snakes in China. This study aims to enhance the understanding of Cryptosporidium infections, risk factors, and clinical manifestations in snakes, providing data crucial for the control and prevention of cryptosporidiosis.

Minimal zoonotic risk of cryptosporidiosis and giardiasis from frogs and reptiles

The zoonotic potential of the protist parasites Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia duodenalis in amphibians and reptiles raises public health concerns due to their growing popularity as pets. This review examines the prevalence and diversity of these parasites in wild and captive amphibians and reptiles to better understand the zoonotic risk. Research on Giardia in both groups is limited, and zoonotic forms of Cryptosporidium or Giardia have not been reported in amphibians. Host-adapted Cryptosporidium species dominate in reptiles, albeit some reptiles have been found to carry zoonotic (C. hominis and C. parvum) and rodent-associated (C. tyzzeri, C. muris and C. andersoni) species, primarily through mechanical carriage. Similarly, the limited reports of Giardia duodenalis (assemblages A, B and E) in reptiles may also be due to mechanical carriage. Thus, the available evidence indicates minimal zoonotic risk associated with these organisms in wild and captive frogs and reptiles. The exact transmission routes for these infections within reptile populations remain poorly understood, particularly regarding the importance of mechanical carriage. Although the risk appears minimal, continued research and surveillance efforts are necessary to gain a more comprehensive understanding of the transmission dynamics and ultimately improve our ability to safeguard human and animal health.

Parasites and microorganisms associated with the snakes collected for the "festa Dei serpari" in Cocullo, Italy

While in much of the Western world snakes are feared, in the small, rural, mountainous town of Cocullo, in the middle of central Italy, snakes are annually collected and celebrated in a sacro-profane ritual. Every 1st of May, Serpari (snake catchers) capture and showcase dozens of non-venomous snakes to celebrate the ritual of San Domenico. In order to detect potential zoonotic pathogens within this unique epidemiological context, parasites and microorganisms of snakes harvested for the "festa dei serpari" ritual were investigated. Snakes (n = 112) were examined and ectoparasites collected, as well as blood and feces sampled. Ectoparasites were identified morpho-molecularly, and coprological examination conducted through direct smear and flotation. Molecular screenings were performed to identify parasites and microorganisms in collected samples (i.e., Mesostigmata mites, Anaplasma/Ehrlichia spp., Rickettsia spp., Borrelia burgdorferi sensu lato, Coxiella burnetii, Babesia/Theileria spp., Cryptosporidium spp., Giardia spp., Leishmania spp. and helminths). Overall, 28.5% (32/112) of snakes were molecularly positive for at least one parasite and/or microorganism. Endosymbiont Wolbachia bacteria were identified from Macronyssidae mites and zoonotic vector-borne pathogens (e.g., Rickettsia, Leishmania), as well as orally transmitted pathogens (i.e., Cryptosporidium, Giardia, Proteus vulgaris, Pseudomonas), were detected from blood and feces. Thus, given the central role of the snakes in the tradition of Cocullo, surveys of their parasitic fauna and associated zoonotic pathogens may aid to generate conservation policies to benefit the human-snake interactions, whilst preserving the cultural patrimony of this event.

Diagnosis of endoparasite species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. with one health importance, in feces from captive snakes in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil

In captivity, snakes may present chronic infections with high mortality, such as those caused by Cryptosporidium serpentis, or they may be pseudoparasitized by species that present zoonotic potential. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the frequency of helminths and protozoa in the feces of captive snakes, characterize the species and subtypes of Cryptosporidium spp. and correlate the parasites detected with other information obtained from these animals. Feces were collected from 189 snakes kept at the Vital Brazil Institute, Rio de Janeiro, including samples from Bothrops jararaca, Bothrops jararacussu, Bothrops moojeni, Bothrops atrox, Bothrops leucurus, Crotalus durissus and Lachesis muta. All the samples were subjected to microscopy techniques and the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) in association with sequencing, to identify Cryptosporidium spp.. Forms of parasites infecting the snakes were identified through microscopy in 50.8% of the samples. Helminths were detected more often than protozoa in the feces of these animals, mainly comprising eggs resembling Kalicephalus sp. and oocysts of Eimeria sp.. Pseudoparasites such as Syphacia sp., Aspiculuris sp. and Hymenolepis nana were also detected. Through correlating the results obtained from parasitological staining techniques and PCR, the total frequency of Cryptosporidium sp. was found to be 19%. The species C. tyzzeri and C. parvum were identified. Characterization using the target gp60 showed subtypes with high potential for zoonotic transmission, especially IIaA15G2R1 and IIaA14G2R1 of C. parvum and IXbA8 of C. tyzzeri. This study highlighted the need for more intensive health management in the Institute's serpentarium and, especially, in its bioterium where rodents are reared as a food source for these snakes.

Mammal-related Cryptosporidium infections in endemic reptiles of New Zealand

New Zealand's endemic reptile fauna is highly threatened and pathogens causing infectious diseases may be a significant risk to already endangered species. Here, we investigate Cryptosporidium infection in captive endemic New Zealand reptiles. We found two mammal-related Cryptosporidium species (C. hominis and C. parvum) and six subtypes from three gp60 families (Ib, Ig and IIa) in 12 individuals of captive endemic Tuatara, Otago and Grand skinks, and Jewelled and Rough geckos. Cryptosporidium serpentis was identified in two Jewelled geckos using 18S. In New Zealand, C. hominis and C. parvum are associated with infections in humans and introduced domestic animals but have also been recently found in wildlife. Our finding of Cryptosporidium infection in endemic reptiles can help inform strategies to monitor the conservation of species and manage potential introductions of pathogens to in-situ and ex-situ populations.

Prevalence and Molecular Characterization of Cryptosporidium serpentis in Captive Snakes in China

Cryptosporidium species are the causative agent of cryptosporidiosis and common intracellular parasites that can infect a wide range of vertebrates, including snakes. In previous studies, Cryptosporidium species infections have been reported in snakes in Asia, Europe, and North America. However, limited information is available about the prevalence and molecular characterization of Cryptosporidium in captive snakes in China. Fecal specimens from 609 captive snakes were collected from Beijing (n = 227), Chengdu (n = 12), Dazhou (n = 359), and Ziyang (n = 11). The partial small-subunit (SSU) rRNA gene was amplified by nested polymerase chain reaction to determine the prevalence of Cryptosporidium, and a phylogenetic tree was constructed to assess evolutionary relationships and genetic characteristics. The overall prevalence of Cryptosporidium was 1.97% (12/609). BLAST and phylogenetic analysis of the small subunit ribosomal RNA (SSU rRNA) gene showed that the parasites belonged to Cryptosporidium serpentis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study to report the prevalence of Cryptosporidium in snakes of southwestern and northern China and provides preliminary data for the control and prevention of cryptosporidiosis in the investigated areas.

RETROSPECTIVE REVIEW OF HISTOLOGIC FINDINGS IN CAPTIVE GILA MONSTERS (HELODERMA SUSPECTUM) AND BEADED LIZARDS (HELODERMA HORRIDUM)

A retrospective study was performed by reviewing all Heloderma spp. submissions to Northwest ZooPath from 1996 to 2019. Necropsy and biopsy specimens from 106 captive Gila monsters (Heloderma suspectum) and 49 captive beaded lizards (Heloderma horridum) were reviewed. Inflammatory diseases were the most frequently diagnosed condition in Heloderma spp., and were diagnosed in 72% of all animals examined, including 76% of Gila monsters and 63% of beaded lizards. The most common cause of inflammation was bacterial infection, which was present in 52% of all Heloderma spp. with inflammation. Enterocolitis was common in Gila monsters (20%) and beaded lizards (14%), but the underlying causes were different for each species. Cryptosporidium spp. was the most common cause of enterocolitis in Gila monsters (36%) but was not identified in beaded lizards. Amoebiasis was a common cause of enterocolitis in Gila monsters (27%) and was the most common cause of enterocolitis in beaded lizards (57%). Deposition diseases were diagnosed in 34% of all Heloderma spp. The most frequently diagnosed deposition disease in beaded lizards was urolithiasis-nephrolithiasis (12%). This disease was not diagnosed in Gila monsters. Deposition diseases that were common in Gila monsters and beaded lizards included hepatic lipidosis and renal gout. Neoplasia was diagnosed in 17% of all Heloderma spp., including 17% of Gila monsters and 18% of beaded lizards. The most common neoplasm of Heloderma spp. was renal adenocarcinoma, which was equally common in Gila monsters and beaded lizards. Less common diagnoses included degenerative diseases, trauma, nutritional disease, nonneoplastic proliferative disease, nondegenerative cardiovascular disease, and congenital malformation.

Cryptosporidium cf. avium in an inland-bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) - A case report and review of the literature

Here, we report the first case of Cryptosporidium cf. avium from an inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps) from a wildlife sanctuary in Victoria, Australia. Molecular characterisation was conducted by PCR-coupled sequencing of regions in the small subunit of nuclear RNA (SSU), actin and large subunit of nuclear RNA (LSU) genes. The sequences obtained grouped with those of C. ornithophilus and other C. avium genotypes/variants originating from reptiles or birds. We discuss this case in relation to the current state of knowledge of C. avium of birds and reptiles, considering provenance and environment (agricultural, pet industry, wildlife, zoo or wildlife park) as well as clinical context, and pathological changes associated with cryptosporidiosis in these host animals.

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Characterisation of Cryptosporidium cf. avium from an inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps).

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Molecular differentiation of C. cf. avium from other members of the C. avium clade.

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Pathogenicity of C. cf. avium seems higher than other members of this clade.

Molecular identification of Cryptosporidium spp. in pet snakes in Beijing, China

Few reports of Cryptosporidium spp. in snakes in China have been published. To determine the infection rate and document the presence of Cryptosporidium in pet snakes using molecular methods, 273 fecal samples were collected from eight species of pet snakes from 13 pet households in Beijing, China, and were examined by PCR amplification of the small subunit ribosomal RNA gene. Cryptosporidium was detected from 17 of 273 (6.2%) samples, and nine out of 13 households tested positive for Cryptosporidium with a range of 3.3 to 33.3% among households showing significant difference (p < 0.01). The infection rate of Cryptosporidium for females and males was 6.5% (13/201) and 5.6% (4/72), respectively, showing no significant difference (p > 0.05). Six out of eight pet snake species tested positive for Cryptosporidium with a range of 4.2 to 9.1% among species, showing no significant difference (p > 0.05). Two Cryptosporidium species were identified: Cryptosporidium serpentis in 10 samples and Cryptosporidium varanii in seven samples. No zoonotic Cryptosporidium species occur in our study populations.

Zoonotic Parasites of Reptiles: A Crawling Threat

Reptiles are reservoirs of a wide range of pathogens, including many protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod parasitic species, some of which may be of public health concern. In this review we discuss the zoonotic risks associated with human–reptile interactions. Increased urbanization and introduction of exotic species of reptile may act as drivers for the transmission of zoonotic parasites through the environment. In addition, being a part of human diet, reptiles can be a source of life-threatening parasitoses, such as pentastomiasis or sparganosis. Finally, reptiles kept as pets may represent a risk to owners given the possibility of parasites transmitted by direct contact or fecal contamination. Awareness of reptile-borne zoonotic parasitoses is important to advocate control, prevention, and surveillance of these neglected diseases.

Species of protozoa, helminths, pentastomids, and arthropod vectors exploit reptiles as definitive or paratenic hosts, which may represent a public health concern.

The zoonotic risk is associated with human–reptile interactions and includes environmental contamination, reptile consumption, or keeping reptiles as pets.

Exotic reptile species may introduce new zoonotic parasites in a previously nonendemic region.

Pentastomiasis and sparganosis are life-threatening food-borne parasitoses.

In our households, if precautions are not taken, reptiles may transmit zoonotic parasites by direct contact or fecal contamination.

Trained veterinarians, physicians, and public health officials are important to advocate for proper diagnostics, parasite identification and treatment, as well as for surveillance strategies and food inspection in areas where reptiles are consumed.

Detection of zoonotic and livestock-specific assemblages of Giardia duodenalis in free-living wild lizards

Giardia duodenalis is a zoonotic parasite that infects the gut of a wide range of vertebrates, including numerous wildlife species. However, little is known about this protozoan parasite in reptiles. Fecal samples from 31 wild lizards were collected in Galicia (northwest Spain) and screened for the presence of Giardia by PCR amplification and sequencing of the ITS1-5.8S-ITS2 region in the ribosomal unit. This allowed detection of the parasite in 5 samples (16.1%), and enabled identification of G. duodenalis assemblage A2 in two samples of Iberian rock lizard (Iberolacerta monticola), G. duodenalis assemblage B in other two samples of I. monticola, and G. duodenalis assemblage E in one sample of Bocage's wall lizard (Podarcis bocagei). The results obtained after PCR amplification and sequencing of the SSU-rDNA gene confirmed the presence of G. duodenalis assemblage A in two samples of I. monticola. This is the first report of G. duodenalis in free-living lizards, although further studies are needed to distinguish between actual infection and mechanical dissemination of cysts. The detection of zoonotic and livestock-specific assemblages of G. duodenalis demonstrates the wide environmental contamination by this parasite, possibly due to human activities.

Molecular Identification of Cryptosporidium Species from Pet Snakes in Thailand

Cryptosporidium is an important pathogen causing gastrointestinal disease in snakes and is distributed worldwide. The main objectives of this study were to detect and identify Cryptosporidium species in captive snakes from exotic pet shops and snake farms in Thailand. In total, 165 fecal samples were examined from 8 snake species, boa constrictor (Boa constrictor constrictor), corn snake (Elaphe guttata), ball python (Python regius), milk snake (Lampropeltis triangulum), king snake (Lampropeltis getula), rock python (Python sebae), rainbow boa (Epicrates cenchria), and carpet python (Morelia spilota). Cryptosporidium oocysts were examined using the dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-modified acid-fast staining and a molecular method based on nested-PCR, PCR-RFLP analysis, and sequencing amplification of the SSU rRNA gene. DMSO-modified acid-fast staining revealed the presence of Cryptosporidium oocysts in 12 out of 165 (7.3%) samples, whereas PCR produced positive results in 40 (24.2%) samples. Molecular characterization indicated the presence of Cryptosporidium parvum (mouse genotype) as the most common species in 24 samples (60%) from 5 species of snake followed by Cryptosporidium serpentis in 9 samples (22.5%) from 2 species of snake and Cryptosporidium muris in 3 samples (7.5%) from P. regius.

Public health significance of zoonotic Cryptosporidium species in wildlife: Critical insights into better drinking water management

Cryptosporidium is an enteric parasite that is transmitted via the faecal-oral route, water and food. Humans, wildlife and domestic livestock all potentially contribute Cryptosporidium to surface waters. Human encroachment into natural ecosystems has led to an increase in interactions between humans, domestic animals and wildlife populations. Increasing numbers of zoonotic diseases and spill over/back of zoonotic pathogens is a consequence of this anthropogenic disturbance. Drinking water catchments and water reservoir areas have been at the front line of this conflict as they can be easily contaminated by zoonotic waterborne pathogens. Therefore, the epidemiology of zoonotic species of Cryptosporidium in free-ranging and captive wildlife is of increasing importance. This review focuses on zoonotic Cryptosporidium species reported in global wildlife populations to date, and highlights their significance for public health and the water industry.

First molecular characterization of enteric protozoa and the human pathogenic microsporidian, Enterocytozoon bieneusi, in captive snakes in China

Enteric protozoa are frequently found in snakes. Nevertheless, few studies regarding genetic characterization of these parasites have been carried out. We describe here the first molecular survey of protozoan pathogens from snakes in China and the first report on Enterocytozoon bieneusi genotyping in snakes in the world. Here, 240 fecal specimens were collected from two species of captive snakes, Naja naja (Indian cobra) and Ptyas mucosus (Oriental rat snake), in Guangxi Province, China, and examined by PCR amplification of the small subunit-ribosomal RNA of enteric protozoa and the internal transcribed spacer of ribosomal RNA of E. bieneusi. Cryptosporidium serpentis was identified in three specimens (2.1%) of Oriental rat snakes. Caryospora was found in 5.4% specimens, including eight from cobras (8.1%) and five from rat snakes (3.6%), and represented six new species-Caryospora sp. SKC-2014a to Caryospora sp. SKC-2014 f. Three new Eimeria species, Eimeria sp. SKE-2014a to Eimeria sp. SKE-2014c, were detected in three specimens (2.1%) from rat snakes. Additionally, Sarcocystis sp. SKS-2014 was detected in one specimen from a cobra. The infection rates of E. bieneusi were 3.0% in cobras and 5.7% in rat snakes. Sequence analysis of 11 PCR products revealed the presence of six E. bieneusi genotypes-two known genotypes (type IV and Henan V) and four new genotypes (CRep-1 to CRep-4). All six E. bieneusi genotypes belonged to the zoonotic group (group 1). This result raised the possibility that E. bieneusi could be present in animals consumed by snakes. This should be taken into consideration to better understand the diversity of the parasite, its transmission through the predator-prey relationship, and public health implications.