Coadministration of ketoconazole and cyclosporine for kidney transplant recipients: long-term follow-up and study of metabolic consequences

Efficacy and safety of ketoconazole combined with calmodulin inhibitor in solid organ transplantation: A systematic review and meta-analysis

What is known and objective

Calcineurin inhibitors (CNIs) can significantly improve the results of solid organ transplantation regarding graft and patient survival. However, the high cost, chronic nephrotoxicity and other side effects are major challenges for the long‐term use of these drugs. Ketoconazole can significantly increase the plasma concentration of CNIs by inhibiting the activity of the cytochrome P450 enzyme. The combination of ketoconazole‐CNIs can reduce the cost of medication for patients by reducing the dosage of CNIs, but its safety is still controversial. Therefore, this study was designed to assess the safety and efficacy of this combination.

Methods

We performed a systematic literature search in PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library and clinicaltrials.gov for randomized controlled trials on ketoconazole and CNI (cyclosporin or tacrolimus) co‐administration in solid organ transplantation. Two authors independently selected studies, assessed the risk of bias and extracted data. The meta‐analysis was performed in RevMan 5.3 provided by the Cochrane Collaboration. PROSPERO registration number: CRD42019118796.

Results and discussion

Five relevant trials with 326 patients were included. Compared with the controls, ketoconazole combined with CNIs can significantly reduce the dose of CNIs in patients receiving solid organ transplantation (WMD = −203.04 mg/day; 95% CI: −310.51 to −95.57, P = .0002). There was no significant difference in serum creatinine between the experimental group and the control group (WMD = −0.19 mg/mL; 95% CI: −0.52 to 0.14, P = .26). In addition, there was no significant difference in the number of rejections between the two groups (OR = 0.58; 95% CI: 0.27 to 1.22, P = .15).

What's new and conclusion

The co‐administration of ketoconazole and CNIs can significantly reduce the dose of CNIs. This combination may be safely used as a CNI‐sparing agent from the time of solid organ transplantation with low‐dose ketoconazole, based on the findings of this review.

No Increased Risk of Ketoconazole Toxicity in Drug-Drug Interaction Studies

In July 2013 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) released a safety announcement regarding the use of ketoconazole and its adverse drug reactions. The FDA report advised against the use ketoconazole tablets as a first-line treatment for any fungal infections because of the risk of potentially serious drug-drug interactions and liver and adrenal gland complications. The European Medicines Agency (EMA) also proposed to limit the use of oral ketoconazole in fungal infections because of the same risk of harmful effects and interactions. In addition, the FDA also advised against the use of oral ketoconazole in drug interaction studies, in which it has been extensively used as an index inhibitor of drug metabolism. The aim of this investigation was to evaluate the risks of ketoconazole-induced hepatotoxicity described by the FDA and EMA in published drug interaction studies with ketoconazole and compare these data with the toxicity reported for ketoconazole when used as antifungal treatment. In the drug interaction studies (2355 participants; healthy volunteers and patients; median treatment duration, 6 days), only 40 participants were reported to have increased liver transaminase activity (1.7%), and no deaths were reported or associated with ketoconazole. In studies investigating ketoconazole treatment, patients were treated for 276 days (median), and 5.6% of patients had elevated liver enzyme activity. Because of the short treatment period in drug interaction studies the risk of drug-induced hepatic injury is considered very low. As such, we recommend that ketoconazole remain a safe CYP3A index inhibitor for use in drug interaction studies with healthy volunteers.

Combining cytochrome P-450 3A4 modulators and cyclosporine or everolimus in transplantation is successful

AIM: To describe the long term follow-up of kidney allograft recipients receiving ketoconazole with calcineurin inhibitors (CNI) alone or combined with everolimus.

METHODS: This is an open-label, prospective observational clinical trial in low immunologic risk patients who, after signing an Institutional Review Board approved consent form, were included in one of two groups. The first one (n = 59) received everolimus (target blood level, 3-8 ng/mL) and the other (n = 114) azathioprine 2 mg/kg per day or mycophenolate mofetyl (MMF) 2 g/d. Both groups also received tapering steroids, the cytochrome P-450 3A4 (CYP3A4) modulator, ketoconazole 50-100 mg/d, and cyclosporine with C0 targets in the everolimus group of 200-250 ng/mL in 1 mo, 100-125 ng/mL in 2 mo, and 50-65 ng/mL thereafter, and in the azathioprine or MMF group of 250-300 ng/mL in 1 mo, 200-250 ng/mL in 2 mo, 180-200 ng/mL until 3-6 mo, and 100-125 ng/mL thereafter. Clinical visits were performed monthly the first year and quarterly thereafter by treating physicians and all data was extracted by the investigators.

RESULTS: The clinical characteristics of these two cohorts were similar. During the follow up (66 + 31 mo), both groups showed comparable clinical courses, but the biopsy proven acute rejection rate during the full follow-up period seemed to be lower in the everolimus group (20% vs 36%; P = 0.04). The everolimus group did not show a higher surgical complication rate than the other group. By the end of the follow-up period, the everolimus group tended to show a higher glomerular filtration rate. Nevertheless, we found no evidence of a consistent negative slope of the temporal allograft function estimated by the modification of the diet in renal disease formula in any of both groups. At 6 years of follow-up, the uncensored and death-censored graft survivals were 91% and 93%, and 91% and 83% in the everolimus plus cyclosporine, and cyclosporine alone groups, respectively. The addition of ketoconazole saved 80% of cyclosporine and 56% of everolimus doses.

CONCLUSION: Combining CYP3A4 modulators with CNI or mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor, in low immunological risk kidney transplant recipients is feasible, effective, safe and affordable even in the long term.

Liver injury associated with ketoconazole: review of the published evidence

The azole antifungal agent ketoconazole has been available since 1981 for the treatment of fungal infections. In 2013, the American Food and Drug Administration and the European Medicines Agency issued warnings or prohibitions against the clinical use of oral ketoconazole due to the risk of liver injury which may lead to liver transplantation or death. From the available published evidence it is difficult to determine the actual incidence or prevalence of liver injury during clinical use of ketoconazole as an antifungal. Hepatic injury, when it occurs, is generally evident as asymptomatic and reversible abnormalities of liver function tests. However, serious liver injury has been reported. Alternatives to ketoconazole (such as itraconazole, fluconazole, voriconazole, and terbinafine) are available, but improved safety with respect to liver injury risk is not clearly established. We are not aware of published reports of significant ketoconazole-associated liver injury in volunteer study participants when ketoconazole has been used as a CYP3A inhibitor in the context of clinical research on drug metabolism. Possible alternatives to ketoconazole as prototype CYP3A inhibitors include ritonavir and potentially itraconazole, but not clarithromycin.

Long-term outcome of ketoconazole and tacrolimus co-administration in kidney transplant patients

AIM: To study the long-term outcome of ketoconazole and tacrolimus combination in kidney transplant recipients.

METHODS: From 2006 to 2010, ketoconazole was given in 199 patients and was continued for at least 1 year or until graft failure (Group 1), while 149 patients did not receive any ketoconazole (Group 2). A combination of tacrolimus, mycophenolate and steroid was used as maintenance therapy. High risk patients received basiliximab induction.

RESULTS: Basic demographic data was similar between the 2 groups. The 5-year cumulative incidence of biopsy-confirmed and clinically-treated acute rejection was significantly higher in Group 1 than in Group 2 (34% vs 18%, P = 0.01). The 5-year Kaplan-Meier estimated graft survival (74.3% vs 76.4%, P = 0.58) and patient survival (87.8% vs 87.5%, P = 0.93) were not different between the 2 groups. Multivariable analyses identified ketoconazole usage as an independent risk of acute rejection (HR = 2.33, 95%CI: 1.33-4.07; P = 0.003) while tacrolimus dose in the 2^nd month was protective (HR = 0.89, 95%CI: 0.75-0.96; P = 0.041).

CONCLUSION: Co-administration of ketoconazole and tacrolimus is associated with significantly higher incidence of acute rejection in kidney transplant recipients.

KDIGO clinical practice guideline for the care of kidney transplant recipients

The 2009 Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) clinical practice guideline on the monitoring, management, and treatment of kidney transplant recipients is intended to assist the practitioner caring for adults and children after kidney transplantation. The guideline development process followed an evidence-based approach, and management recommendations are based on systematic reviews of relevant treatment trials. Critical appraisal of the quality of the evidence and the strength of recommendations followed the Grades of Recommendation Assessment, Development, and Evaluation (GRADE) approach. The guideline makes recommendations for immunosuppression, graft monitoring, as well as prevention and treatment of infection, cardiovascular disease, malignancy, and other complications that are common in kidney transplant recipients, including hematological and bone disorders. Limitations of the evidence, especially on the lack of definitive clinical outcome trials, are discussed and suggestions are provided for future research.

Drug interactions in transplant patients: what everyone should know

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Adverse events due to drug-drug interactions remain a challenge in the postsurgical care of transplant recipients. A combination of potent and selective immunosuppressive drugs, which have a narrow therapeutic index, with medications for the treatment of comorbidities such as dyslipidemia, infection, psychiatric conditions, and hypertension, can lead to life-threatening drug-drug interactions.

RECENT FINDINGS

There are a number of important drug-drug interactions which are important for physicians to consider. It is critical to understand the pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of drug-drug interactions, their potential impact on patient care, and the management strategies.

SUMMARY

Close therapeutic drug monitoring and evaluation of drug-specific side effects continue to be an important key to minimize adverse events due to drug-drug interactions.

CYP3A5*1/*3 genotype influences the blood concentration of tacrolimus in response to metabolic inhibition by ketoconazole

OBJECTIVES

Ketoconazole retards metabolic degradation of tacrolimus through its effect on the cytochrome P-450 enzyme system and allows reduction in treatment costs. Enzyme activity is determined by a single nucleotide polymorphism (*1/*3) in the CYP3A5 gene.

METHODS

We prospectively investigated the impact of this polymorphism on tacrolimus concentration in a cohort of 79 renal transplant recipients on ketoconazole. Genotyping was carried out by using polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism technique. Dose-adjusted trough level (C0) was calculated at baseline and at 3, 7, 15, 30, and 60 days.

RESULTS

The baseline C0 was significantly lower in those with at least one *1 allele [44.95+/-14.12 vs. 63.43+/-14.72 (ng/ml)/(mg/kg/day), P<0.0001]. After starting ketoconazole in all genotypes, dose-normalized C0 increased and the cost of therapy decreased. Compared with baseline, the magnitude of increase was 112% and 79% in those without and with *1 allele, respectively (P<0.001). The cost savings were 32% and 39% in mycophenolate mofetil-treated and 47% and 61% in azathioprine-treated patients who were with and without one *1 allele, respectively.

CONCLUSION

We show that the CYP3A5*1/*3 polymorphism is an important determinant of the response to inhibition of tacrolimus metabolism by ketoconazole, with a 30% greater inhibition in those lacking *1 allele. This finding will allow better dose adjustment and minimize exposure to subtherapeutic or toxic concentrations.

Co-administration of ketoconazole and tacrolimus therapy: a transplanted rat model

BACKGROUND/AIM

The aim of this work is to study the effect of addition of ketoconazole to experimental kidney transplanted rat treated with tacrolimus and precludes the percentage of tacrolimus dose reduction.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material of this work included 60 male Sprague Dawely rats subjected to renal allotransplantation. They were equally divided into five groups: Group I: served as control group, Group II: received FK506 3.2 mg/kg/bw, Group III: received FK506 2 mg/kg/bw, Group IV: received FK506 1 mg/kg/bw, Group V: received FK506 1 mg/kg/bw plus ketoconazole 20 mg/kg/day. FK506 trough level and laboratory investigations were determined at 0, 3, 7, 10, 14, and 27 days post-transplantation.

RESULTS

In all groups loss of body weight was observed at day 27 after treatment compared to that before transplantation. Serum creatinine significantly increased at day 27 compared to the basal level in groups treated with 1.0 mg and 3.2 mg FK506 (1.80+/-0.50 vs. 0.39+/-0.06 P=0.001) and (1.03+/-0.26 vs. 0.50+/-0.07 P=0.001) respectively. While for 2.0 mg or 1.0 mg plus keto groups, no significant differences in serum creatinine levels over time (0.56+/-0.22 vs. 0.44+/-0.10 P=0.106) and (0.55+/-0.30 vs. 0.42+/-0.08 P=0.160) were observed.

CONCLUSION

Concomitant administration of ketoconazole and FK506 is safe and results in increase blood trough level concentration of FK506 with 50% dose reduction in transplanted rat model.

Ketoconazole-tacrolimus coadministration in kidney transplant recipients: two-year results of a prospective randomized study

BACKGROUND/AIMS

In developing countries, kidney transplantation is greatly hindered by financial problems, especially due to costly newer immunosuppressive medications. Ketoconazole increases blood levels of tacrolimus and cyclosporine through inhibition of cytochrome P450 microsomal enzymes. We previously reported on the 6-month safety and the outstanding impact on treatment costs of the ketoconazole-tacrolimus combination in kidney transplant recipients. Data of this combination are still lacking in the literature. We hereby report on the 2-year results of our trial.

METHODS

This prospective, randomized study included 70 live-donor kidney transplant recipients receiving tacrolimus (age 16-45 years, 54 males and 16 females). Patients were randomized into two equal groups: group 1, where ketoconazole 100 mg/day was added, and group 2 (control group).

RESULTS

After 2 years, group 1 (ketoconazole) patients still showed a highly significant reduction of the tacrolimus dose (by 53.8%) and cost (by 52.9%) compared with the control group (p < 0.001) and a significant improvement in graft function in comparison to their own initial graft function (p = 0.002). Throughout the 2 years, no side effects of ketoconazole were noted.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that the long-term ketoconazole-tacrolimus combination therapy in kidney transplant recipients during the 2 years is safe, has an outstanding impact on treatment costs and improves graft outcome.

Impact of the cyclosporine-ketoconazole interaction in children with steroid-dependent idiopathic nephrotic syndrome

BACKGROUND

Children with steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome experience serious side effects from steroid therapy. Cyclosporine A (CsA), which is an effective agent in the treatment of steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome, is expensive and, consequently, often unaffordable in developing countries. Many studies have documented the benefit of ketoconazole administration in transplant adults treated with CsA. We have conducted a retrospective study with the objective of addressing cost-savings, safety, and the efficacy of the co-administration of ketoconazole and CsA to children with steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome.

METHODS

This study included 102 nephrotic patients who were steroid-dependent and who received cyclosporine therapy. The commonest pathologic lesions were focal segmental glomerulosclerosis (64 patients) and minimal change disease (36 patients). Among the patients participating in the study, 78 received daily ketoconazole therapy (ketoconazole group) in the form of a 50-mg dose accompanied by an initial one-third decrease in the CsA dose, while 24 received CsA alone (non- ketoconazole group). All of the patients were children (below 18 years), and the male-to-female ratio was 3:1. The mean duration of treatment was 22.9 months. The characteristics of both groups were comparable.

RESULTS

Co-administration of ketoconazole significantly reduced mean doses of CsA by 48% with a net cost savings of 38%. It also resulted in a significant improvement in the CsA response and a more successful steroid withdrawal as well as a decrease in the frequency of renal impairment. Liver function tests remained normal in both groups up to and including the final follow-up (mean of 33.6 months).

CONCLUSIONS

The co-administration of ketoconazole to CsA in children with idiopathic steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome safely results in a significant reduction in CsA cost, which causes great concern in developing countries. It may also improve CsA response.

Co-administration of ketoconazole and tacrolimus therapy: a transplanted rat model

BACKGROUND/AIM

The aim of this work is to study the safety and the effect of addition of ketoconazole to experimental kidney transplanted rat treated with tacrolimus and predicts the percentage of tacrolimus dose reduction.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The material of this work included 60 male Sprague Dawely rats subjected to renal allotransplantation. They were equally divided into five groups: Group I: served as control group, Group II: received FK506 3.2 mg/kg/bw, Group III: received FK506 2 mg/kg/bw, Group IV: received FK506 1 mg/kg/bw, Group V: received FK506 1 mg/kg/bw plus Ketoconazole 20 mg/kg/day. FK506 trough level and laboratory investigations were determined at 0, 3, 7, 10, 14, and 27 days post-transplantation.

RESULTS

In all groups loss of body weight was observed at day 27 after treatment compared to that before transplantation. Serum creatinine significantly increased at day 27 compared to the basal level in groups treated with 1.0 and 3.2 mg FK506 (1.80 +/- 0.50 versus 0.39 +/- 0.06 P = 0.001) and (1.03 +/- 0.26 versus 0.50 +/- 0.07 P = 0.001) respectively, while for 2.0 mg or 1.0 mg plus keto groups, no significant differences in serum creatinine levels over time (0.56 +/- 0.22 versus 0.44 +/- 0.10 P = 0.106) and (0.55 +/- 0.30 versus 0.42 +/- 0.08 P=0.160) were observed.

CONCLUSION

Concomitant administration of Ketoconazole and FK506 in transplanted rat model is safe and results in increase of blood trough level concentration of FK506 with 50% reduction of its dose.

Co-administration of cyclosporine and ketoconazole in children with minimal change nephrotic syndrome

BACKGROUND/AIMS

The use of cyclosporine A (CsA) in the treatment of idiopathic nephrotic syndrome was firstly reported in 1986. On the other hand, many studies have documented the benefit of ketoconazole (keto) administration in renal and cardiac transplant adults treated with CsA, but this co-administration has not been reported in children with minimal change disease (MCD). Thus, deliberate use of keto to reduce the need for cyclosporine is not new, but it is particularly relevant because of the high cost of cyclosporine.

METHODS

This study included 46 children with MCD who were steroid resistant or dependent and received CsA. Among them, 31 received daily keto therapy (keto group) in a dose of 50 mg with concomitant decrease of the CsA dose by one third while 15 patients received CsA alone (non-keto group).

RESULTS

The mean (+/-SD) duration of CsA treatment was 25.7 +/- 13.7 months. The characteristics of both groups were comparable. Co-administration of keto significantly improved the response to CsA therapy (from 60 to 94%) and decreased the frequency of renal impairment (from 27 to 3%). Hepatic function remained within the normal range in both groups. Co-administration of keto significantly reduced mean doses of CsA with overall net cost savings of about 34%.

CONCLUSION

From this study, we may conclude that co-administration of low dose ketoconazole to cyclosporine in children with idiopathic MCD is safe. This combination significantly reduces CsA cost and, moreover, keto may improve the response to cyclosporine and may have a favorable effect on the kidney function.

A prospective, randomized study of coadministration of ketoconazole and cyclosporine a in kidney transplant recipients: ten-year follow-up

BACKGROUND

In a prospective, randomized study, we previously proved the safety and financial benefits of the coadministration of ketoconazole (keto) and cyclosporine A (CsA) in patients. We report the 10-year follow-up of these patients and the controls.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In January 1992, 100 living-related kidney transplant recipients were randomized into two groups: Group 1 (51 patients) received 100 mg/day keto, and group 2 (49 patients) did not receive keto (control). Both groups were evaluated regarding graft function, CsA dose and levels, liver function tests, serum calcium and phosphorus, bone mineral density, and histopathologic assessment.

RESULTS

Follow-up for 10 years showed that CsA dose reduction was maximum after 1 month (76.5%) and decreased gradually after 10 years (64.6%). Acute rejection was diagnosed in 22% and 27% in the keto and control groups, respectively (P =0.27). In the control group, the acute rejection episodes were more frequent with poorer response to treatment. Chronic allograft nephropathy was statistically significantly less in the keto group. Hepatotoxicity and metabolic complications were similar in both groups. The annual cost saving of CsA was 60% after 1 year and 50% at the end of the study.

CONCLUSIONS

We conclude that the long-term use of keto for CsA dose reduction in kidney transplant recipients is safe, tolerable, and cost-sparing and is associated with stable graft function.

Measurement of hepatic and intestinal CYP3A4 and PGP activity by combined po + iv [14C]erythromycin breath and urine test

The aim of the present study was to develop a test for measuring hepatic and intestinal removal of cytochrome p-450 3A4 (CYP3A4)- and P-glycoprotein (PGP)-dependent xenobiotics that would be applicable for clinical use in humans. Orally and intravenously administered [N-methyl-14C]erythromycin was used for evaluation of 14C-labeled excretion dynamics in breath and urine. Simultaneous breath and urine test measurements were performed in 32 healthy volunteers and in 23 renal transplant recipients. Mathematical analysis of the excretion rate of labeled CO2 in breath and labeled carbon in urine resulted in 1). separation of both CYP3A4 and PGP activity in the liver and the intestinal mucosa and 2). numerical calculation of the dynamics of the different processes. The test was sufficiently sensitive to detect theoretically predicted process-specific pharmacological modulations by different drugs in healthy volunteers and after recent renal transplantation. It is concluded that the combined oral and intravenous erythromycin breath and urine test is a reliable and noninvasive test to measure phenotypic intestinal and hepatic CYP3A4 and PGP activity and may be a promising tool for prediction of drug interactions and dose adjustment of many pharmacotherapeutics in clinical practice, e.g., immunosuppressive agents after renal transplantation.

Coadministration of tacrolimus and ketoconazole in renal transplant recipients: cost analysis and review of metabolic effects

BACKGROUND

The high cost of tacrolimus is a major problem in Mexico. Ketoconazole increases tacrolimus bioavailability by inhibiting cytochrome P450 3A4 and glycoprotein-p.

OBJECTIVE

To demonstrate that the coadministration of tacrolimus and ketoconazole allows a significant dose and cost reduction.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This prospective study administered tacrolimus and ketoconazole to renal transplant recipients with dose adjustment according to tacrolimus blood levels. At 0-1, 1-6, 6-12, and 12-24 months posttransplant demographic, transplant type, immunosuppression, and clinical data were reviewed. The cost of tacrolimus treatment was calculated based on the dose used as compared to the recommended dose (0.15-0.20 mg/kg/d).

RESULTS

Eleven patients with an age of 40 years (range, 13-71) were studied from May 2000 to August 2002. Follow-up was 15 +/- 10 months. Graft source was living donor in six patients and cadaveric in five. All patients received tacrolimus + mycophenolate mofetil + prednisone. The mean ketoconazole dose was 87 mg/d. Since the dose of tacrolimus was 0.04 mg/kg/d versus the recommended dose of 0.15-0.20 mg/kg/d, there was a 78% cost reduction (P =.000). Tacrolimus blood levels remained in the therapeutic range. There were no drug-related side effects.

CONCLUSIONS

The co-administration of tacrolimus and ketoconazole results in a substantial dose and cost reduction while maintaining therapeutic levels. No adverse metabolic consequences were seen with this combination.