Overgrowth

Endocasts of ornithopod dinosaurs: Comparative anatomy

Ornithopod dinosaurs were a successful group before they became extinct at the end of the Cretaceous. They were present on every continent, though they were rare in the Southern Hemisphere. We present the results of our work on the brain of these dinosaurs as an attempt to determine which evolutionary trends affected it. Old and new technologies allow us to peer into the skull of long extinct animals and retrieve information about their brain. First we provide a short description of the brain of ornithopod dinosaurs from Europe and Asia, then we sum up the characteristics that can be gathered from it. The presence of valleculae helps us to assess the actual size of the brain with more confidence. The olfactory peduncles are large and these animals had a good sense of smell. There is a trend toward an increase in the size of the cerebral hemispheres, and a more straight-lined brain. The latter can be the result of the ontogeny and the size achieved by the adult animal on the development of the brain. Other characteristics, like the development of the cerebral hemispheres and the encephalization quotient, allude to Hadrosauridae having had cognitive abilities more developed than previously assumed. This is in adequacy with other data from the physical characteristics (e.g., crests) and the social life (e.g., living in herds, communal nests) of these dinosaurs, which denote high and complex behaviors like care for their young, sexual courtship, and gregariousness.

Approach to the Patient With Pseudoacromegaly

Pseudoacromegaly encompasses a heterogeneous group of conditions in which patients have clinical features of acromegaly or gigantism, but no excess of GH or IGF-1. Acromegaloid physical features or accelerated growth in a patient may prompt referral to endocrinologists. Because pseudoacromegaly conditions are rare and heterogeneous, often with overlapping clinical features, the underlying diagnosis may be challenging to establish. As many of these have a genetic origin, such as pachydermoperiostosis, Sotos syndrome, Weaver syndrome, or Cantú syndrome, collaboration is key with clinical geneticists in the diagnosis of these patients. Although rare, awareness of these uncommon conditions and their characteristic features will help their timely recognition.

Normal Growth despite Combined Pituitary Hormone Deficiency

BACKGROUND

The paradox of normal growth despite a lack of growth hormone (GH) is an unexplained phenomenon described in some pathological (sellar, suprasellar, and hypothalamic disorders) and overgrowth syndromes. It has been suggested that the paradoxical growth is due to other GH variants, GH-like moieties, prolactin, insulin, insulin-like growth factors (IGFs), and unidentified serum factors or growth mechanisms. The objective of this study was to determine the mechanism underlying this normal growth without GH.

CASE DESCRIPTION

We describe here growth, hormonal, and genetic analyses for an adolescent boy with panhypopituitarism who achieved an adult height above his genetic potential.

RESULTS

Normal growth was observed despite low serum GH, IGF-I, IGF-II, IGF binding protein 3 (IGFBP-3) and acid labile subunit (ALS) concentrations, but the IGF-II/IGFBP-3 molar ratio was slightly high. Panhypopituitarism was associated with a heterozygous missense mutation of HESX1, with variable penetrance in heterozygous relatives. Exome analysis detected heterozygous missense mutations of various genes involved in intracellular signaling pathways. The growth-promoting activity of the patient's serum was unable to induce AKT phosphorylation in the MCF-7 cell line.

CONCLUSION

The high IGF-II/IGFBP-3 molar ratio was not the cause of the sustained high growth velocity, due to the low affinity of IGF-II for IGF type 1 receptor. The key finding was the HESX1 mutation, as similar cases have been described before, suggesting a common mechanism for growth without GH. However, the variable penetrance of this variant in heterozygous relatives suggests that modifier genes or mechanisms involving combinations with mutations of other genes involved in intracellular signaling pathways might be responsible.

Pseudoacromegaly

Individuals with acromegaloid physical appearance or tall stature may be referred to endocrinologists to exclude growth hormone (GH) excess. While some of these subjects could be healthy individuals with normal variants of growth or physical traits, others will have acromegaly or pituitary gigantism, which are, in general, straightforward diagnoses upon assessment of the GH/IGF-1 axis. However, some patients with physical features resembling acromegaly - usually affecting the face and extremities -, or gigantism - accelerated growth/tall stature - will have no abnormalities in the GH axis. This scenario is termed pseudoacromegaly, and its correct diagnosis can be challenging due to the rarity and variability of these conditions, as well as due to significant overlap in their characteristics. In this review we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of pseudoacromegaly conditions, highlighting their similarities and differences with acromegaly and pituitary gigantism, to aid physicians with the diagnosis of patients with pseudoacromegaly.

Cranial Endocast of the lambeosaurine hadrosaurid Amurosaurus riabinini from the Amur region, Russia

Information on the structure of the brain of the lambeosaurine hadrosaurid dinosaur Amurosaurus riabinini, from the Late Maastrichtian of Blagoveschensk, Far Eastern Russia, is presented based on endocranial casts. The endocasts are compared with physical and digital endocasts of other dinosaurs. The olfactory tract was large. The cerebral hemispheres are enlarged and round, illustrating the important development of this part of the brain in hadrosaurids. The pituitary body is enlarged as well, perhaps prefiguring the large size attained by hadrosaurids. The EQ of Amurosaurus was similar to that of the lambeosaurine dinosaur Hypacrosaurus altispinus and was relatively larger than in most extant non-avian reptiles, including sauropod and ceratopsian dinosaurs. However, it was apparently relatively smaller than those of most theropod dinosaurs. The relatively large size of the cerebrum is consistent with the range and complexity of social behaviors inferred for lambeosaurine dinosaurs.

Distribution of insulin-like growth factors in condylar hyperplasia

Condylar hyperplasia (CH) is a local overgrowth of the condylar process of the temporomandibular joint (TMJ) of unknown etiology. Probably, growth factors like the insulin-like growth factors (IGFs) are involved in its pathogenesis. Specimens from 12 patients were investigated histologically and immunohistochemically to obtain the distribution of the IGFs-I and -II and the IGF1 receptor. The results revealed juvenile and adult subtypes. While generally IGF-II could only be detected weakly, in the juvenile cases strong immunostaining for IGF-I in cartilage and bone supposes an influence on pathological growth processes.

Trait-associated expressed hepatic and intestine genes in cattle of different metabolic type--putative functional candidates for nutrient utilization

The present study aimed at identifying bovine hepatic and intestinal DNA sequences expressed breed specifically as potential functional candidate genes for nutrient transformation. Transcript levels of 29 expressed sequence tags (ESTs) were analysed comparatively in the liver and intestine of growing Charolais and German Holstein bulls by real-time RT-PCR. In previous studies, these ESTs were characterized as differentially displayed in mRNA differential display of cows varying in metabolic type and harbouring single nucleotide polymorphisms. Breed-specific gene expression levels indicate significantly increased hepatic metabolic activity in Charolais and increased intestinal metabolic activity in German Holstein bulls. Transcript levels of six functional genes measured in liver (NDUFB8, NACA, UAP1, SAH) and intestine (FUS/TLS, APOC3), respectively, support this assumption. The observed coincidence of metabolic type-specific expressed ESTs with variant ESTs showing breed-specific allele distribution points to functional genetic variants located in the vicinity of the analysed sequences. In addition, location of most of the breed specifically expressed ESTs within chromosome regions known to be affecting carcass and growth traits in cattle supports the putative candidate gene character of the ESTs identified.

Overgrowth with severe developmental delay following IVF/ICSI: A newly recognized syndrome?

We report on a child with postnatal overgrowth, noted from 3 months of age, associated with severe developmental delay and refractory seizures. The patient was conceived using in vitro fertilization (IVF) and intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI). The patient's features do not resemble any reported overgrowth syndromes reported so far. We propose that this is a previously unrecognized disorder. The potential role of ICSI/IVF in the pathogenesis of this condition is unknown. No imprinting defect at chromosome 11p15 was identified.

Genetic analysis of tall stature

Tall stature is less often experienced as an important problem than short stature. However, a correct diagnosis may be of eminent importance, especially when interventions are planned, or to know the natural history. Overgrowth can be caused by endocrine disorders and skeletal dysplasias, but also by several genetic syndromes. Despite a systematic diagnostic approach, there will be patients with tall stature who do not fit a known diagnosis. In this group of patients possibilities of genetic analysis do exist, but are not common practice. The FMR1 gene should be analyzed in patients with tall stature and mental retardation, and in these patients the NSD1 gene can be considered whenever some features of Sotos syndrome do exist. In tall patients without mental retardation and some features of Sotos or Beckwith-Wiedemann syndrome it may still be useful to look for mutations in the NSD1 gene, but also for changes in the 11p15 region. The various possibilities are discussed and placed in a flowchart.

Macrocephaly-cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita syndrome--prenatal signs in ultrasonography

A new case of macrocephaly-cutis marmorata telangiectatica congenita (M-CMTC) syndrome is described. The patient presented typical congenital findings in utero, although the syndrome was diagnosed postnatally. The M-CMTC syndrome should be considered when there is a marked fetal overgrowth and progressive macrocephaly with no indications of maternal hyperglycemia or fetal hyperinsulinism. Our patient also had unilateral pleural effusion, curved femur and frontal bossing.