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Gad A, Menjivar NG, Felton R, Durrant B, Tesfaye D, Ruggeri E. Mapping the follicle-specific regulation of extracellular vesicle-mediated microRNA transport in the southern white rhinoceros (Ceratotherium simum simum)†. Biol Reprod 2024; 111:376-390. [PMID: 38775197 PMCID: PMC11327318 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioae081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 04/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 08/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Efforts to implement effective assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) for the conservation of the northern white rhinoceros (NWR; Ceratotherium simum cottoni) to prevent its forthcoming extinction, could be supported by research conducted on the closely related southern white rhinoceros (SWR; Ceratotherium simum simum). Within the follicle, extracellular vesicles (EVs) play a fundamental role in the bidirectional communication facilitating the crucial transport of regulatory molecules such as microRNAs (miRNAs) that control follicular growth and oocyte development. This study aimed to elucidate the dynamics of EV-miRNAs in stage-dependent follicular fluid (FF) during SWR ovarian antral follicle development. Three distinct follicular stages were identified based on diameter: Growing (G; 11-17 mm), Dominant (D; 18-29 mm), and Pre-ovulatory (P; 30-34 mm). Isolated EVs from the aspirated FF of segmented follicle stages were used to identify EV-miRNAs previously known via subsequent annotation to all equine (Equus caballus; eca), bovine (Bos taurus; bta), and human (Homo sapiens; hsa) miRNAs. A total of 417 miRNAs were detected, with 231 being mutually expressed across all three stages, including eca-miR-148a and bta-miR-451 as the top highly expressed miRNAs. Distinct expression dynamics in miRNA abundance were observed across the three follicular stages, including 31 differentially expressed miRNAs that target various pathways related to follicular growth and development, with 13 miRNAs commonly appearing amidst two different comparisons. In conclusion, this pioneering study provides a comprehensive understanding of the stage-specific expression dynamics of FF EV-miRNAs in the SWR. These findings provide insights that may lead to novel approaches in enhancing ARTs to catalyze rhinoceros conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Gad
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory (ARBL), Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
- Department of Animal Production, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo University, Giza 12613, Egypt
| | - Nico G Menjivar
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory (ARBL), Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Rachel Felton
- Reproductive Sciences, Conservation Science Wildlife Health, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA 92027, USA
| | - Barbara Durrant
- Reproductive Sciences, Conservation Science Wildlife Health, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA 92027, USA
| | - Dawit Tesfaye
- Animal Reproduction and Biotechnology Laboratory (ARBL), Department of Biomedical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Elena Ruggeri
- Reproductive Sciences, Conservation Science Wildlife Health, San Diego Zoo Wildlife Alliance, Escondido, CA 92027, USA
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Huggins L, Norris J, Conley A, Dini P. Abnormal mare behaviour is rarely associated with changes in hormonal markers of granulosa cell tumours: A retrospective study. Equine Vet J 2024; 56:759-767. [PMID: 37344926 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2022] [Accepted: 05/29/2023] [Indexed: 06/23/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Abnormal or undesired mare behaviours are often assumed to be associated with ovarian abnormalities. OBJECTIVES We aimed to determine the incidence of abnormal behaviours and their association with concentrations of one or more ovarian hormones associated with a granulosa cell tumour (GCT). STUDY DESIGN Retrospective descriptive. METHODS A total of 2914 hormonal profile samples submitted with the words behave, behaviour, or behaving in the submission history were analysed. The association between reported abnormal behaviours and concentrations of testosterone, anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH), inhibins and inhibin-B were assessed. Statistical analysis was performed using a Chi-squared test of association. RESULTS Of the 2914 cases that were submitted due to behaviour issues, 2506 (86%) did not have any of the measured hormones reach GCT-like concentrations. The remaining 408 cases had either one (63%), two (25.5%), or three (11.5%) hormones with concentrations consistent with those from confirmed GCT cases. Testosterone had the lowest percent of GCT-like values among the cases (7.7%), compared with AMH (9.4%), inhibins (9.6%) and inhibin B (8.7%). Stallion-like behaviour was significantly associated with increased concentrations of all four hormones. In contrast, aggression, oestrous and other abnormal behaviours were significantly less likely to be associated with increased concentrations of the hormones. MAIN LIMITATIONS Retrospective study, using sample submission history. CONCLUSION Overall, the abnormal behaviours among mares, except the stallion-like behaviour, were not associated with increased ovarian hormones. These results highlight the common misassumption about the involvement of the ovaries in 'abnormal behaviours' or 'undesirable behaviours' of mares.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren Huggins
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Jamie Norris
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Alan Conley
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
| | - Pouya Dini
- Department of Population Health and Reproduction, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California, USA
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Sobotková E, Kopec T, Mikule V, Kuřitková D. Influence of horse demographics, country of training and race distance on the rating of Thoroughbreds. Arch Anim Breed 2023; 66:299-313. [PMID: 38039343 PMCID: PMC10654610 DOI: 10.5194/aab-66-299-2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 12/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The aim of the research was to assess how age, sex, sire, country of foaling, country of training and race distance influenced the international racing and performance of Thoroughbreds. The research was based on performance ratings of 6216 horses assigned by the International Federation of Racing Authorities between 2004 and 2022. The most common sex was stallion (58.54 %) and more than half of the population consisted of 3- and 4-year-old horses (54.68 %). The majority of the horses had the USA as their country of foaling (25.92 %) and also as their country of training (24.87 %). The sire with the largest number of offspring in the International Federation of Horseracing Authorities (IFHA) databases was Galileo (IRE) (193 horses). Four of the 10 most frequently represented sires belonged to the Sadler's Wells (USA) paternal line. The analysis of the statistics in the database as a whole established a significant (p < 0.001 ) influence of all observed factors. Stallions achieved a significantly higher rating (117.85) compared to geldings (117.17) and mares (117.13). The horses originating in Ireland achieved a statistically higher rating (117.99) than horses from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, New Zealand, a group of other countries designated "Others" and South Africa. Statistically conclusive differences were found between horses trained in Ireland (118.80) and all other countries except Great Britain and France. Five of the 10 sires with the best offspring rating belong to the Mr. Prospector (USA) paternal line.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eva Sobotková
- Department of Animal Science, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, Brno, 613 00, Czech Republic
| | - Tomáš Kopec
- Department of Animal Science, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, Brno, 613 00, Czech Republic
| | - Vladimír Mikule
- Department of Animal Science, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, Brno, 613 00, Czech Republic
| | - Dana Kuřitková
- Department of Animal Science, Mendel University in Brno, Zemědělská 1, Brno, 613 00, Czech Republic
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Straticò P, Hattab J, Guerri G, Carluccio A, Bandera L, Celani G, Marruchella G, Varasano V, Petrizzi L. Behavioral Disorders in Mares with Ovarian Disorders, Outcome after Laparoscopic Ovariectomy: A Case Series. Vet Sci 2023; 10:483. [PMID: 37624270 PMCID: PMC10458155 DOI: 10.3390/vetsci10080483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 07/21/2023] [Indexed: 08/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Owner complaints of estrus-related behavior in mares are a common cause of referral for laparoscopic ovariectomy. Granulosa cell tumors are a common neoplastic condition affecting the equine ovary, causing behavioral changes at rest and reduced performance. The reported success rate of ovariectomy in treating behavioral disorders is 64-86%. The aim of this study was to retrospectively evaluate the long-term follow-up of laparoscopic ovariectomy in mares in our case series, focusing on the owner's perspective of the behavior of the mares after surgery. In addition, the histopathological features of the removed ovaries were investigated. The clinical records of mares that underwent laparoscopic ovariectomy between 2015 and 2022 were retrospectively reviewed. Owners complaining of poor behavior were interviewed about the main behavioral problem leading to referral and its eventual resolution after surgery. Eleven mares were included. The most common complaints were increased sensitivity on both flanks (10/11, 91%) and general riding problems (9/11, 82%). In 5/11 cases (45%), both ovaries were removed by laparoscopic ovariectomy. Histopathologic findings consistent with GCT/GTCT were found in five out of six examined ovaries (five granulosa theca cell tumors, GTCT). According to owner interviews, the scores assigned to each behavior improved significantly after surgery, regardless of histological findings. Although many factors can influence the behavior of horses, granulosa cell tumors (GCTs) proved to be a common cause and, as reported by the owners, ovariectomy resulted in improvement or complete resolution of the abnormal behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Giulia Guerri
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy; (P.S.); (J.H.); (A.C.); (L.B.); (G.C.); (G.M.); (V.V.); (L.P.)
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Aurich C, Kaps M. Suppression of reproductive behaviour and gonadal function in female horses-An update. Reprod Domest Anim 2022; 57 Suppl 4:4-12. [PMID: 35467049 PMCID: PMC9790428 DOI: 10.1111/rda.14129] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The behaviour of mares is often detrimental to their performance resulting in frequent demand for methods to suppress gonadal function. In addition, prevention of unintended reproduction especially in feral horse populations may require methods for suppression of gonadal function. Surgical ovariectomy is a safe method but not an acceptable approach in feral mares and undesired in mares where future breeding is considered. There are different approaches for artificial prolongation of the luteal phase resulting in transient inhibition of oestrus and ovulation. Among those, treatment with natural or synthetic progestogens is considered the most common and successful method. Whereas application of intrauterine devices may result in prolongation of luteal function in non-pregnant mares, intrauterine insertion of glass balls is no longer recommended because of complications in individual mares. There are several safer alternatives that may be of interest, especially for population control in free-roaming horses. Treatment with long-acting deslorelin implants inhibited ovulation and oestrus behaviour in mares for limited and variable time intervals in a dose-dependent manner. The effect of GnRH vaccines varies considerably among individual mares, is age dependent, and oestrus-like behaviour may still occur. Contraception via immunization against native porcine or recombinant zona pellucida antigen is successful, but immunocontraception is as much a result of ovarian inactivity as an antibody-based block to sperm-oocyte binding. In conclusion, several treatments for suppression of gonadal function in mares are available, but there are advantages and disadvantages associated that have to be considered. The treatment of choice will thus differ with regard to the demands.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine Aurich
- Artificial Insemination and Embryo TransferDepartment for Small Animals and HorsesVetmeduni ViennaViennaAustria
| | - Martim Kaps
- Artificial Insemination and Embryo TransferDepartment for Small Animals and HorsesVetmeduni ViennaViennaAustria
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Analysis of the current situation in international show jumping and assessment of the influence of the proportion of Thoroughbred in the pedigree, horse demographics and sport season on the performance of horses. J Vet Behav 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jveb.2021.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Collar EM, Duesterdieck-Zellmer KF, Huber MJ, Semevolos SA, Parker JE, Husby KA. Outcome of bilateral equid laparoscopic ovariectomies. Vet Surg 2021; 50:975-983. [PMID: 33931888 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13651] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 04/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess outcomes and behavior changes associated with bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomies. STUDY DESIGN Retrospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION Fifty-one equids. METHODS Medical records were evaluated from equid bilateral laparoscopic ovariectomies from January 2012 to October 2018 with a potential of 6 months follow-up. Follow-up information obtained by telephone interviews included behavior before and after surgery. Likelihood ratio chi-square tests and odds ratios (OR) with 95% CI were calculated where applicable, with statistical significance at p < .05. RESULTS Bilateral ovariectomy was performed in 51 cases, with elective (no pathologic ovaries) ovariectomies performed in 41/51 cases. Occasional estrus-like behavior was observed postoperatively in 14/51 (27%) mares, but the behavior was mild and manageable in all cases. There was no age effect on outcome in all bilateral (p = .56) or elective only (p = .36) cases. In 37/41 (90%) elective cases, improvement was observed in the reason for presentation. Some response to altrenogest administration for behavior modification was observed preoperatively in 12/18 (67%) elective cases. Response to altrenogest was not associated with (p = .31) or able to predict a beneficial response to surgery (OR = 5.5; 95% CI = 0.38-78.57; p = .21). CONCLUSION Response to altrenogest in elective cases may not predict behavioral outcome with ovariectomy. Occasional estrus-like behavior in mares postoperatively was not problematic for any owners. Bilateral ovariectomy is a viable treatment option for owners seeking to alleviate undesirable behavior in mares. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE This study should aid veterinarians and horse owners in case selection for bilateral ovariectomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth M Collar
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Tennessee, Knoxville, Tennessee, USA.,Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Katja F Duesterdieck-Zellmer
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Michael J Huber
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Stacy A Semevolos
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Jill E Parker
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
| | - Kirsty A Husby
- Department of Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
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Crabtree JR. A review of oestrus suppression techniques in mares. EQUINE VET EDUC 2020. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.13405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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Heaton K, Ragle C, Godderidge MT, Farrell A, Tibary A. Estrous Behavior in Mules—An Owner's Perspective. J Equine Vet Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2017.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Campbell MLH, Hampshire D, Hamstead LE, Rose BV, Smith KC, de Mestre AM. The effects of intrauterine infusion of peanut oil on endometrial health, salivary cortisol and interovulatory period in mares. Theriogenology 2017; 102:116-125. [PMID: 28759834 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2017.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Intrauterine infusion of peanut oil at Day 10 post-ovulation has been reported to prolong dioestrus in mares. However, the effects of peanut oil treatment on the endometrium and whether the technique is painful have not been assessed. The objectives of this study were, (i) to determine the effect of intrauterine infusion of peanut oil on endometrial health, (ii) to determine whether use of intrauterine peanut oil is painful and (iii) to confirm that peanut oil causes prolonged dioestrus. Six mares aged 3-12 years old were used in a cross-over design with each mare administered both 1 ml of intrauterine peanut oil and a sham treatment on different oestrous cycles. The effect of intrauterine infusion of 1 ml peanut oil or sham treatment were measured using interovulatory period, uterine fluid accumulation as determined by transrectal ultrasonography, serum progesterone levels, endometrial Kenney biopsy scores and histological features, endometrial eosinophil numbers and salivary cortisol measurements. The individual mare response to intrauterine infusion of peanut oil was variable. Peanut oil infusion did not statistically prolong the luteal phase, nor elevate salivary cortisol levels but did cause superficial erosion of the endometrial surface epithelium in all mares and significantly increased eosinophil numbers in the endometrium (P = 0.0068). The Kenney grade for biopsies from 2/6 mares worsened transiently following infusion. In conclusion, intra-uterine peanut oil does not statistically increase the duration of the luteal phase but results in an inflammatory response and increase in endometrial eosinophil numbers suggesting treatment may be associated with a hypersensitivity-type reaction. Those contemplating using peanut oil to suppress oestrus should also be aware of the legislative and regulatory implications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madeleine L H Campbell
- Department of Production and Population Health, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom.
| | - Daniel Hampshire
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Lauren E Hamstead
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Belinda V Rose
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Ken C Smith
- Department of Pathology and Pathogen Biology, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom
| | - Amanda M de Mestre
- Department of Comparative Biomedical Sciences, The Royal Veterinary College, Hawkshead Lane, Herts AL9 7TA, United Kingdom.
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Freeman CE, Lyle SK. Chronic intermittent colic in a mare attributed to uterine marbles. EQUINE VET EDUC 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/eve.12408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. E. Freeman
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; Louisiana State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital; Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
| | - S. K. Lyle
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences; Louisiana State University Veterinary Teaching Hospital; Baton Rouge Louisiana USA
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Donovan C, Hazzard T, Schmidt A, LeMieux J, Hathaway F, Kutzler M. Effects of a commercial canine gonadotropin releasing hormone vaccine on estrus suppression and estrous behavior in mares. Anim Reprod Sci 2013; 142:42-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anireprosci.2013.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/03/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Thitaram C, Brown JL, Pongsopawijit P, Chansitthiwet S, Wongkalasin W, Daram P, Roongsri R, Kalmapijit A, Mahasawangkul S, Rojansthien S, Colenbrander B, van der Weijden GC, van Eerdenburg FJCM. Seasonal effects on the endocrine pattern of semi-captive female Asian elephants (Elephas maximus): timing of the anovulatory luteinizing hormone surge determines the length of the estrous cycle. Theriogenology 2007; 69:237-44. [PMID: 17997149 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2007.09.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2007] [Revised: 09/02/2007] [Accepted: 09/18/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Better breeding strategies for captive Asian elephants in range countries are needed to increase populations; this requires a thorough understanding of their reproductive physiology and factors affecting ovarian activity. Weekly blood samples were collected for 3.9 years from 22 semi-captive female Asian elephants in Thai elephant camps to characterize LH and progestin patterns throughout the estrous cycle. The duration of the estrous cycle was 14.6+/-0.2 weeks (mean+/-S.E.M.; n=71), with follicular and luteal phases of 6.1+/-0.2 and 8.5+/-0.2 weeks, respectively. Season had no significant effect on the overall length of the estrous cycle. However, follicular and luteal phase lengths varied among seasons and were negatively correlated (r=-0.658; P<0.01). During the follicular phase, the interval between the decrease in progestin concentrations to baseline and the anovulatory LH (anLH) surge varied in duration (average 25.9+/-2.0 days, range 7-41, n=23), and was longer in the rainy season (33.4+/-1.8 days, n=10) than in both the winter (22.2+/-4.5 days, n=5; P<0.05) and summer (18.9+/-2.6 days, n=8; P<0.05). By contrast, the interval between the anLH and ovulatory LH (ovLH) surge was more consistent (19.0+/-0.1 days, range 18-20, n=14). Thus, seasonal variation in estrous cycle characteristics were mediated by endocrine events during the early follicular phase, specifically related to timing of the anLH surge. Overall reproductive hormone patterns in Thai camp elephants were not markedly different from those in western zoos. However, this study was the first to more closely examine how timing of the LH surges impacted estrous cycle length in Asian elephants. These findings, and the ability to monitor reproductive hormones in range countries (and potentially in the field), should improve breeding management of captive and semi-wild elephants.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Thitaram
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand.
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