1
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Jelly ET, Steelman ZA, Zhang H, Chu KK, Cotton CC, Eluri S, Shaheen NJ, Wax A. Next-generation endoscopic probe for detection of esophageal dysplasia using combined OCT and angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2024; 15:1943-1958. [PMID: 38495690 PMCID: PMC10942713 DOI: 10.1364/boe.515469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/17/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024]
Abstract
Angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (a/LCI) is an optical technique that enables depth-specific measurements of nuclear morphology, with applications to detecting epithelial cancers in various organs. Previous a/LCI setups have been limited by costly fiber-optic components and large footprints. Here, we present a novel a/LCI instrument incorporating a channel for optical coherence tomography (OCT) to provide real-time image guidance. We showcase the system's capabilities by acquiring imaging data from in vivo Barrett's esophagus patients. The main innovation in this geometry lies in implementing a pathlength-matched single-mode fiber array, offering substantial cost savings while preserving signal fidelity. A further innovation is the introduction of a specialized side-viewing probe tailored for esophageal imaging, featuring miniature optics housed in a custom 3D-printed enclosure attached to the tip of the endoscope. The integration of OCT guidance enhances the precision of tissue targeting by providing real-time morphology imaging. This novel device represents a significant advancement in clinical translation of an enhanced screening approach for esophageal precancer, paving the way for more effective early-stage detection and intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Evan T. Jelly
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Zachary A. Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Haoran Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K. Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Cary C. Cotton
- Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Swathi Eluri
- Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Nicholas J. Shaheen
- Center for Esophageal Diseases and Swallowing, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina 27599, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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2
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Zhang H, Steelman ZA, Ceballos S, Chu KK, Wax A. Reconstruction of angle-resolved backscattering through a multimode fiber for cell nuclei and particle size determination. APL PHOTONICS 2020; 5:076105. [PMID: 36874207 PMCID: PMC9980710 DOI: 10.1063/5.0011500] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/25/2020] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
We demonstrate reconstruction of angle-resolved optical backscattering after transmission through a multimode fiber. Angle-resolved backscattering is an important tool for particle sizing, and has been developed as a diagnostic modality for detecting epithelial precancer. In this work, we fully characterized the transfer function of a multimode fiber using a plane-wave illumination basis across two dimensions. Once characterized, angle-resolved scattering information which has been scrambled by multimodal propagation can be easily and accurately reconstructed. Our technique was validated using a Mie theory-based inverse light scattering analysis (ILSA) algorithm on polystyrene microsphere phantoms of known sizes. To demonstrate the clinical potential of this approach, nuclear morphology was determined from the reconstructed angular backscattering from MCF-10A human mammary epithelial cell samples and validated against quantitative image analysis (QIA) of fluorescence microscopy images.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 227708, USA
| | - Zachary A Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 227708, USA
| | - Silvia Ceballos
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 227708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 227708, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 227708, USA
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3
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Ge X, Tang H, Wang X, Liu X, Chen S, Wang N, Ni G, Yu X, Chen S, Liang H, Bo E, Wang L, Braganza CS, Xu C, Rowe SM, Tearney GJ, Liu L. Geometry-Dependent Spectroscopic Contrast in Deep Tissues. iScience 2019; 19:965-975. [PMID: 31522119 PMCID: PMC6745491 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2019.08.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2019] [Revised: 07/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Nano-structures of biological systems can produce diverse spectroscopic effects through interactions with broadband light. Although structured coloration at the surface has been extensively studied, natural spectroscopic contrasts in deep tissues are poorly understood, which may carry valuable information for evaluating the anatomy and function of biological systems. Here we investigated the spectroscopic characteristics of an important geometry in deep tissues at the nanometer scale: packed nano-cylinders, in the near-infrared window, numerically predicted and experimentally proved that transversely oriented and regularly arranged nano-cylinders could selectively backscatter light of the long wavelengths. Notably, we found that the spectroscopic contrast of nanoscale fibrous structures was sensitive to the pressure load, possibly owing to the changes in the orientation, the degree of alignment, and the spacing. To explore the underlying physical basis, we further developed an analytical model based on the radial distribution function in terms of their radius, refractive index, and spatial distribution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xin Ge
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Hongying Tang
- College of Information, Mechanical and Electrical Engineering, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China
| | - Xianghong Wang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Xinyu Liu
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Si Chen
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Nanshuo Wang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Guangming Ni
- School of Optoelectronic Science and Engineering, University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu 610054, China
| | - Xiaojun Yu
- School of Automation, Northwestern Polytechnical University, Xi'an, Shaanxi 710072, China
| | - Shufen Chen
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Haitao Liang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - En Bo
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Lulu Wang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Cilwyn Shalitha Braganza
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore
| | - Chenjie Xu
- School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459, Republic of Singapore
| | - Steven M Rowe
- Gregory Fleming James Cystic Fibrosis Research Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA; Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA.
| | - Guillermo J Tearney
- Wellman Center for Photomedicine, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA; Harvard-MIT Division of Health Sciences and Technology, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School and Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
| | - Linbo Liu
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 639798, Republic of Singapore; School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore 637459, Republic of Singapore.
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4
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Liu Y, Xu J. High-resolution microscopy for imaging cancer pathobiology. CURRENT PATHOBIOLOGY REPORTS 2019; 7:85-96. [PMID: 32953251 PMCID: PMC7500261 DOI: 10.1007/s40139-019-00201-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Light microscopy plays an essential role in clinical diagnosis and understanding the pathogenesis of cancer. Conventional bright-field microscope is used to visualize abnormality in tissue architecture and nuclear morphology, but often suffers from many limitations. This review focuses on the potential of new imaging techniques to improve basic and clinical research in pathobiology. RECENT FINDINGS Light microscopy has significantly expanded its ability in resolution, imaging volume, speed and contrast. It now allows 3D high-resolution volumetric imaging of tissue architecture from large tissue and molecular structures at nanometer resolution. SUMMARY Pathologists and researchers now have access to various imaging tools to study cancer pathobiology in both breadth and depth. Although clinical adoption of a new technique is slow, the new imaging tools will provide significant new insights and open new avenues for improving early cancer detection, personalized risk assessment and identifying the best treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Liu
- Biomedical Optical Imaging Laboratory, Departments of Medicine and Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Jianquan Xu
- Biomedical Optical Imaging Laboratory, Departments of Medicine and Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
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5
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Waterhouse DJ, Fitzpatrick CRM, Pogue BW, O'Connor JPB, Bohndiek SE. A roadmap for the clinical implementation of optical-imaging biomarkers. Nat Biomed Eng 2019; 3:339-353. [PMID: 31036890 DOI: 10.1038/s41551-019-0392-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/17/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Clinical workflows for the non-invasive detection and characterization of disease states could benefit from optical-imaging biomarkers. In this Perspective, we discuss opportunities and challenges towards the clinical implementation of optical-imaging biomarkers for the early detection of cancer by analysing two case studies: the assessment of skin lesions in primary care, and the surveillance of patients with Barrett's oesophagus in specialist care. We stress the importance of technical and biological validations and clinical-utility assessments, and the need to address implementation bottlenecks. In addition, we define a translational roadmap for the widespread clinical implementation of optical-imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dale J Waterhouse
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Catherine R M Fitzpatrick
- Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
- Department of Engineering, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | | | | | - Sarah E Bohndiek
- Department of Physics, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
- Cancer Research UK, Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
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6
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Zhang H, Steelman ZA, Ho DS, Chu KK, Wax A. Angular range, sampling and noise considerations for inverse light scattering analysis of nuclear morphology. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2019; 12:e201800258. [PMID: 30239148 PMCID: PMC6375761 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201800258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, significant work has been devoted to the use of angle-resolved elastic scattering for the extraction of nuclear morphology in tissue. By treating the nucleus as a Mie scattering object, techniques such as angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (a/LCI) have demonstrated substantial success in identifying nuclear alterations associated with dysplasia. Because optical biopsies are inherently noninvasive, only a small, discretized portion of the 4π scattering field can be collected from tissue, limiting the amount of information available for diagnostic purposes. In this work, we comprehensively characterize the diagnostic impact of variations in angular sampling, range and noise for inverse light scattering analysis of nuclear morphology, using a previously reported dataset from 40 patients undergoing a/LCI optical biopsy for cervical dysplasia. The results from this analysis are applied to a benchtop scanning a/LCI system which compromises angular range for wide-area scanning capability. This work will inform the design of next-generation optical biopsy probes by directing optical design towards parameters which offer the most diagnostic utility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haoran Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Zachary A. Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
- Correspondence: Zachary A. Steelman, Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, NC, 27705, USA
| | - Derek S. Ho
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K. Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
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7
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Mkarimi M, Mashimo H. Advanced Imaging for Barrett's Esophagus and Early Neoplasia: Surface and Subsurface Imaging for Diagnosis and Management. Curr Gastroenterol Rep 2018; 20:54. [PMID: 30302571 DOI: 10.1007/s11894-018-0661-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Esophageal adenocarcinoma bears one of the fastest rising incidence of any cancers and generally arises in the setting of gastroesophageal reflux and Barrett's esophagus. However, early detection of neoplasia can be challenging since most patients are asymptomatic until they progress to more advanced and less curable stages, and early dysplastic lesions can be small, multifocal, and difficult to detect. Clearly, new imaging tools are needed in light of sampling error associated with random biopsies, the current standard of practice. RECENT FINDINGS Advances in endoscopic imaging including virtual chromoendoscopy, confocal laser endomicroscopy, and subsurface imaging with optical coherence tomography have ushered in a new era for detecting subtle neoplastic lesions. Moreover, in light of esophagus-sparing treatments for neoplastic lesions, such tools are likely to guide ablation and follow-up management. While there is no ideal single imaging modality to facilitate improved detection, staging, ablation, and follow-up of patients with dysplastic Barrett's esophagus, new advances in available technology, the potential for multimodal imaging, and the use of computer-aided diagnosis and biomarkers all hold great promise for improving detection and treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mansoureh Mkarimi
- VA Boston Healthcare, Harvard Medical School, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA
| | - Hiroshi Mashimo
- VA Boston Healthcare, Harvard Medical School, 1400 VFW Parkway, West Roxbury, MA, 02132, USA.
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8
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Steelman ZA, Eldridge WJ, Wax A. Response to Comment on "Is the nuclear refractive index lower than cytoplasm? Validation of phase measurements and implications for light scattering technologies": A Comment on "How a phase image of a cell with nucleus refractive index smaller than that of the cytoplasm should look like?", e201800033. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2018; 11:e201800091. [PMID: 29722169 PMCID: PMC6814151 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.201800091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 03/23/2018] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
Abstract
Recently, Maxim A. Yurkin commented on our paper "Is the nuclear refractive index lower than cytoplasm? Validation of phase measurements and implications for light scattering technologies" as well as on a complementary study "Cell nuclei have lower refractive index and mass density than cytoplasm" from Schürmann et al. In his comment, Yurkin concluded that quantitative phase images of cells with nuclei that are less optically dense than the cytoplasm must exhibit a characteristic concavity, the absence of which is evidence against our conclusion of a less-dense nucleus. In this response, we suggest that Yurkin's conclusion is reached through an oversimplification of the spatial refractive index distribution within cells, which does not account for high index inclusions such as the nucleolus. We further cite recent studies in 3-dimensional refractive index imaging, in which the preponderance of studies supports our conclusion. Finally, we comment on the current state of knowledge regarding subcellular refractive index distributions in living cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A. Steelman
- Correspondence: Zachary A. Steelman,
Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive,
Durham, NC 27708,
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9
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Steelman ZA, Kim S, Jelly ET, Crose M, Chu KK, Wax A. Comparison of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging. APPLIED OPTICS 2018; 57:1455-1462. [PMID: 29469848 PMCID: PMC6171504 DOI: 10.1364/ao.57.001455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Use of imaging fiber bundles for coherence-domain imaging has remained limited to date. In this work, we provide characterization of commercially available imaging bundles for coherence-domain imaging, by evaluating their modal structure for applicability to interferometric imaging. We further examine custom fabricated bundles developed in collaboration with a corporate partner for their ability to reduce interelement optical path length variability and cross talk between elements. The results presented here will serve as a useful guide for comparing fiber bundles for coherence imaging while also offering an improved understanding of the functionality and limitations of imaging bundles for advancing coherent imaging technologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A. Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Sanghoon Kim
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Evan T. Jelly
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Michael Crose
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K. Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, 101 Science Drive, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA
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10
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Qiu L, Chuttani R, Pleskow DK, Turzhitsky V, Khan U, Zakharov YN, Zhang L, Berzin TM, Yee EU, Sawhney MS, Li Y, Vitkin E, Goldsmith JD, Itzkan I, Perelman LT. Multispectral light scattering endoscopic imaging of esophageal precancer. LIGHT, SCIENCE & APPLICATIONS 2018; 7:17174. [PMID: 30839534 PMCID: PMC6060057 DOI: 10.1038/lsa.2017.174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2017] [Revised: 12/18/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Esophageal adenocarcinoma is the most rapidly growing cancer in America. Although the prognosis after diagnosis is unfavorable, the chance of a successful outcome increases tremendously if detected early while the lesion is still dysplastic. Unfortunately, the present standard-of-care, endoscopic surveillance, has major limitations, since dysplasia is invisible, often focal, and systematic biopsies typically sample less than one percent of the esophageal lining and therefore easily miss malignancies. To solve this problem we developed a multispectral light scattering endoscopic imaging system. It surveys the entire esophageal lining and accurately detects subcellular dysplastic changes. The system combines light scattering spectroscopy, which detects and identifies invisible dysplastic sites by analyzing light scattered from epithelial cells, with rapid scanning of the entire esophageal lining using a collimated broadband light beam delivered by an endoscopically compatible fiber optic probe. Here we report the results of the first comprehensive multispectral imaging study, conducted as part of routine endoscopic procedures performed on patients with suspected dysplasia. In a double-blind study that characterized the system's ability to serve as a screening tool, 55 out of 57 patients were diagnosed correctly. In addition, a smaller double-blind comparison of the multispectral data in 24 patients with subsequent pathology at locations where 411 biopsies were collected yielded an accuracy of 90% in detecting individual locations of dysplasia, demonstrating the capability of this method to serve as a guide for biopsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Le Qiu
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Ram Chuttani
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Douglas K Pleskow
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Vladimir Turzhitsky
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Umar Khan
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Yuri N Zakharov
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Lei Zhang
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Tyler M Berzin
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Eric U Yee
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Mandeep S Sawhney
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Yunping Li
- Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Edward Vitkin
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Goldsmith
- Department of Pathology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Irving Itzkan
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
| | - Lev T Perelman
- Center for Advanced Biomedical Imaging and Photonics, Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Division of Gastroenterology, Department of Medicine, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
- Biological and Biomedical Sciences Program, Harvard University, Boston, MA 02215, USA
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11
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Steelman ZA, Ho D, Chu KK, Wax A. Scanning system for angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry. OPTICS LETTERS 2017; 42:4581-4584. [PMID: 29140317 PMCID: PMC5777518 DOI: 10.1364/ol.42.004581] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry (a/LCI) detects precancer by enabling depth-resolved measurements of nuclear morphology in vivo. A significant limitation of a/LCI is the point-probe nature of the method, sampling <0.5 mm2 before probe relocation is necessary. In this work, we demonstrate a scanning method capable of assessing an area >100 mm2 without repositioning. By utilizing a reflection-only three-optic rotator prism and a two-axis scanning mirror, we demonstrate radial scans of a sample with a linear range of 12 mm and a full rotational range of 180°. Use of this design will improve the diagnostic utility of a/LCI for wide-area screening of tissue health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zachary A. Steelman
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
- Corresponding author:
| | - Derek Ho
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Kengyeh K. Chu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
| | - Adam Wax
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Duke University, Durham, NC, 27708, USA
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12
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Simmons ZJ, Rogers JD. Microscope objective based 4 π spectroscopic tissue scattering goniometry. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2017; 8:3828-3841. [PMID: 28856053 PMCID: PMC5560844 DOI: 10.1364/boe.8.003828] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/12/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The measurement of optical scattering as a function of angle, goniometry, can provide a wealth of information about tissue. The goniometry technique described here measures the intensity profile at the pupil planes of two microscope objectives with a scattering sample between them. The maximum observable scattering angle is extended by employing off-axis illumination. This configuration permits several advantages including: i) rapid measurement of scattering into 4π sr to characterize the entire scattering phase function in isotropic tissue, ii) sensitivity to axially asymmetric scattering from anisotropic fibrous tissue, iii) selective interrogation of small regions within spatially inhomogenous tissue, iv) concurrent measurement of scattering coefficient μs , and v) measurement of wavelength dependent scattering properties via spectrally tunable source. The instrument is validated by comparing measurements of microsphere suspensions to the Mie scattering solution. Instrument capabilities are demonstrated with samples of rat brain and mouse eye tissues.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z. J. Simmons
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706,
USA
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1111 Highland Avenue, WIMR 9433, Madison, WI 53705,
USA
| | - J. D. Rogers
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1550 Engineering Drive, Madison, WI 53706,
USA
- McPherson Eye Research Institute, University of Wisconsin–Madison, 1111 Highland Avenue, WIMR 9433, Madison, WI 53705,
USA
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13
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Pogue BW, Wang KK. Cancer diagnostics: Light scattering by pancreatic cysts. Nat Biomed Eng 2017. [DOI: 10.1038/s41551-017-0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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14
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Naser M, Graham MT, Pierre K, Boustany NN. Label-Free Classification of Bax/Bak Expressing vs. Double-Knockout Cells. Ann Biomed Eng 2016; 44:3398-3407. [PMID: 27256359 DOI: 10.1007/s10439-016-1649-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Accepted: 05/13/2016] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We combine optical scatter imaging with principal component analysis (PCA) to classify apoptosis-competent Bax/Bak-expressing, and apoptosis resistant Bax/Bak-null immortalized baby mouse kidney cells. We apply PCA to 100 stacks each containing 236 dark-field cell images filtered with an optically implemented Gabor filter with period between 0.3 and 2.9 μm. Each stack yields an "eigencell" image corresponding to the first principal component obtained at one of the 100 Gabor filter periods used. At each filter period, each cell image is multiplied by (projected onto) the eigencell image. A Feature Matrix consisting of 236 × 100 scalar values is thus constructed with significantly reduced dimension compared to the initial dataset. Utilizing this Feature Matrix, we implement a supervised linear discriminant analysis and classify successfully the Bax/Bak-expressing and Bax/Bak-null cells with 94.7% accuracy and an area under the curve (AUC) of 0.993. Applying a feature selection algorithm further reveals that the Gabor filter period ranges most significant for the classification correspond to both large (likely nuclear) features as well as small sized features (likely organelles present in the cytoplasm). Our results suggest that cells with a genetic defect in their apoptosis pathway can be differentiated from their normal counterparts by label-free multi-parametric optical scatter data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Naser
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Michelle T Graham
- Department of Electrical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, 21218, USA
| | - Kamau Pierre
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Nada N Boustany
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Rutgers University, 599 Taylor Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA.
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15
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Warszawik-Hendzel O, Olszewska M, Maj M, Rakowska A, Czuwara J, Rudnicka L. Non-invasive diagnostic techniques in the diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma. J Dermatol Case Rep 2015; 9:89-97. [PMID: 26848316 DOI: 10.3315/jdcr.2015.1221] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2015] [Accepted: 12/25/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Squamous cell carcinoma is the second most common cutaneous malignancy after basal cell carcinoma. Although the gold standard of diagnosis for squamous cell carcinoma is biopsy followed by histopathology evaluation, optical non-invasive diagnostic tools have obtained increased attention. Dermoscopy has become one of the basic diagnostic methods in clinical practice. The most common dermoscopic features of squamous cell carcinoma include clustered vascular pattern, glomerular vessels and hyperkeratosis. Under reflectance confocal microscopy, squamous cell carcinoma shows an atypical honeycomb or disarranged pattern of the spinous-granular layer of the epidermis, round nucleated bright cells in the epidermis and round vessels in the dermis. High frequency ultrasound and optical coherence tomography may be helpful in predominantly in pre-surgical evaluation of tumor size. Emerging non-invasive or minimal invasive techniques with possible application in the diagnosis of squamous cell carcinoma of the skin, lip, oral mucosa, vulva or other tissues include high-definition optical coherence tomography, in vivo multiphoton tomography, direct oral microscopy, electrical impedance spectroscopy, fluorescence spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, elastic scattering spectroscopy, differential path-length spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, and angle-resolved low coherence interferometry.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Małgorzata Maj
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
| | | | - Joanna Czuwara
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
| | - Lidia Rudnicka
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland; ; Departmet of Neuropeptides, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
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16
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Krishnamoorthi R, Iyer PG. Molecular biomarkers added to image-enhanced endoscopic imaging: will they further improve diagnostic accuracy? Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol 2015; 29:561-73. [PMID: 26381302 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpg.2015.05.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Barrett's esophagus (BE) is a premalignant condition for esophageal adenocarcinoma (EAC) which has dismal prognosis. The risk of progression from BE to EAC increases with dysplasia grade. The purpose of surveillance exams in BE is to detect dysplasia at an early stage and intervene before development of EAC. However, the current surveillance practices have not been effective in reducing EAC incidence. Major limitations of this strategy include challenges in identifying dysplasia during endoscopic surveillance, which leads to sampling error and subjectivity in the histological diagnosis of dysplasia due to interobserver variation amongst pathologists. Advanced imaging techniques may allow targeted biopsy of suspicious foci with incremental yield in dysplasia detection and reduce sampling error. Molecular biomarker panels have the potential to objectively assess progression risk without the subjectivity associated with histology. Combining molecular markers with advanced imaging appears to be a promising strategy to further improve risk stratification and reduce EAC incidence and mortality. Few studies have investigated this strategy so far and the results are promising. Further research on different permutations between the available biomarkers and imaging techniques will help us determine the best possible combination that detects dysplasia with high sensitivity and specificity. Further research is needed to establish the combined strategy's cost effectiveness and feasibility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Krishnamoorthi
- Barrett's Esophagus Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, United States
| | - Prasad G Iyer
- Barrett's Esophagus Unit, Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN 55905, United States.
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17
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Omar E. Future Imaging Alternatives: The Clinical Non-invasive Modalities in Diagnosis of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma (OSCC). Open Dent J 2015; 9:311-8. [PMID: 26464601 PMCID: PMC4598385 DOI: 10.2174/1874210601509010311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2014] [Revised: 12/15/2014] [Accepted: 05/25/2015] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Background : Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has a remarkably high incidence worldwide, and a fairly serious prognosis. This is encouraging further research into advanced technologies for non-invasive methods of making early diagnoses, ideally in primary care settings. Method : In this article, the available objective Non-imaging methods for diagnosing OSCC have been reviewed. MEDLINE, EMBASE, the Cochrane Library, and CINAHL have been searched for advanced technologies of non-invasive methods in diagnosis of OSCC, including oral brush biopsy, optical biopsy, saliva-based oral cancer diagnosis and others. Results : Toluidine blue, one of the oldest non-invasive methods for diagnosing OSCC, is unreliable because of its subjectivity, as it is dependent on the experience of the examiner. The diagnosis of Oral carcinoma by Oral brush biopsy with exfoliative cytology based on nano-bio-chip sensor platform shows 97–100% sensitivity and 86% specificity. Another promising non-invasive technique for OSCC diagnosis is saliva-based oral cancer diagnosis, which is an alternative to serum testing. Optical biopsy, which uses the technology of spectroscopy, can be used to detect changes at a sub-cellular level; thus, it provides information that may not be available with conventional histology with reliable sensitivity and specificity. Conclusion : It is clearly evident that screening and early effective detection of cancer and pre-cancerous lesions have the potential to reduce the morbidity and mortality of this disease. The imaging technologies are subjective procedures since all of them require interpretation and significantly affected by the examiner experience. These make further research for advanced objective procedures. Saliva-based oral cancer diagnosis and optical biopsy are promising objective non-invasive methods for diagnosing OSCC. They are easy to perform clinically at primary care set. They show promising pathways for future development of more effective method for the diagnosis of OSCC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esam Omar
- Department of Oral & Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Taibah University, Saudi Arabia
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18
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Omar E. Current concepts and future of noninvasive procedures for diagnosing oral squamous cell carcinoma--a systematic review. Head Face Med 2015; 11:6. [PMID: 25889859 PMCID: PMC4396078 DOI: 10.1186/s13005-015-0063-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) has a remarkably high incidence worldwide, and a fairly serious prognosis, encouraging further research into advanced technologies for noninvasive methods of making early diagnoses, ideally in primary care settings. Objectives Our purpose was to examine the validity of using advanced noninvasive technologies in diagnosis of OSCC by identifying and evaluating relevant published reports. Data source MEDLINE, EMBASE, and CINAHL were searched to identify clinical trials and other information published between 1990 and 10 June 2014; the searches of MEDLINE and EMBASE were updated to November 2014. Study selection: Studies of noninvasive methods of diagnosing OSCC, including oral brush biopsy, optical biopsy, saliva-based oral cancer diagnosis, and others were included. Data extraction Data were abstracted and evaluated in duplicate for possible relevance on two occasions at an interval of 2 months before being included or excluded. Data synthesis This study identified 163 studies of noninvasive methods for diagnosing OSCC that met the inclusion criteria. These included six studies of oral brush biopsy, 42 of saliva-based oral diagnosis, and 115 of optical biopsy. Sixty nine of these studies were assessed by the modified version of the QUADAS instrument. Saliva-based oral cancer diagnosis and optical biopsy were found to be promising noninvasive methods for diagnosing OSCC. Limitation The strength of evidence was rated low for accuracy outcomes because the studies did not report important details required to assess the risk for bias. Conclusions It is clear that screening for and early detection of cancer and pre-cancerous lesions have the potential to reduce the morbidity and mortality of this disease. Advances in technologies for saliva-based oral diagnosis and optical biopsy are promising pathways for the future development of more effective noninvasive methods for diagnosing OSCC that are easy to perform clinically in primary care settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esam Omar
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, College of Dentistry, Taibah University, Madinah, Saudi Arabia.
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19
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Bennett M, Mashimo H. Molecular markers and imaging tools to identify malignant potential in Barrett's esophagus. World J Gastrointest Pathophysiol 2014; 5:438-449. [PMID: 25400987 PMCID: PMC4231508 DOI: 10.4291/wjgp.v5.i4.438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2014] [Revised: 04/10/2014] [Accepted: 07/14/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to its rapidly rising incidence and high mortality, esophageal adenocarcinoma is a major public health concern, particularly in Western countries. The steps involved in the progression from its predisposing condition, gastroesophageal reflux disease, to its premalignant disorder, Barrett’s esophagus, and to cancer, are incompletely understood. Current screening and surveillance methods are limited by the lack of population-wide utility, incomplete sampling of standard biopsies, and subjectivity of evaluation. Advances in endoscopic ablation have raised the hope of effective therapy for eradication of high-risk Barrett’s lesions, but improvements are needed in determining when to apply this treatment and how to follow patients clinically. Researchers have evaluated numerous potential molecular biomarkers with the goal of detecting dysplasia, with varying degrees of success. The combination of biomarker panels with epidemiologic risk factors to yield clinical risk scoring systems is promising. New approaches to sample tissue may also be combined with these biomarkers for less invasive screening and surveillance. The development of novel endoscopic imaging tools in recent years has the potential to markedly improve detection of small foci of dysplasia in vivo. Current and future efforts will aim to determine the combination of markers and imaging modalities that will most effectively improve the rate of early detection of high-risk lesions in Barrett’s esophagus.
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20
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Ramzan Z, Nassri AB, Huerta S. The use of imaging and biomarkers in diagnosing Barrett's esophagus and predicting the risk of neoplastic progression. Expert Rev Mol Diagn 2014; 14:575-91. [PMID: 24831686 DOI: 10.1586/14737159.2014.919856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Long-standing gastroesophageal reflux disease can result in transformation of the normal squamous lining of the esophagus into columnar epithelium (with goblet cells). This condition, Barrett's esophagus (BE), is considered a risk factor for esophageal cancer (EAC) and may be the cause of the increased incidence of EAC over the last few decades. Currently, endoscopy with biopsies revealing dysplasia is the best predictor for neoplastic progression in patients with BE. However, the use of more sophisticated imaging techniques and biomarkers with or without histological assessment may be helpful in more accurate prediction of malignant transformation in these patients. New approaches to the evaluation of BE such as epigenetics, miRNA analysis, detection of DNA content abnormalities and loss of heterozygosity have great potential to shed light on the complex gastroesophageal reflux disease -BE-EAC sequence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zeeshan Ramzan
- VA North Texas Healthcare System - Dallas VA Medical Center, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 4500 S. Lancaster Road, Dallas, TX 75216, USA
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21
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Enhanced imaging in the GI tract: spectroscopy and optical coherence tomography. Gastrointest Endosc 2013; 78:568-73. [PMID: 24054739 DOI: 10.1016/j.gie.2013.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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22
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Roy HK, Backman V. Spectroscopic applications in gastrointestinal endoscopy. Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol 2012; 10:1335-41. [PMID: 23059052 PMCID: PMC3756813 DOI: 10.1016/j.cgh.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/05/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
One of the major frontiers in biomedical optics has been as an adjunct to gastrointestinal endoscopy. In particular, spectroscopy of elastic light scattering has the potential of addressing many of the vexing challenges confronting endoscopists. This review discusses the principles of spectroscopy and critically evaluates performance in clinically significant scenarios. One of the best established applications is optical biopsy (in situ histological determination), and a number of techniques such as elastic scattering spectroscopy have demonstrated the ability to discriminate between neoplastic and non-neoplastic polyps. For flat dysplasia detection in Barrett's esophagus, some of the most promising spectroscopic technologies are angle-resolved low-coherence interferometry and endoscopic polarized scanning spectroscopy (the next generation light scattering spectroscopy). A new and exciting biological approach involves optical detection of field carcinogenesis. This can be exploited to reduce colonoscopic adenoma miss rate by assessing microcirculatory augmentation in the mucosa in the vicinity of the polyp using polarization-gatedspectroscopy. Furthermore, there are nano/micro-architectural correlates with diffuse field carcinogenesis throughout the colon. Indeed, technologies such as low coherence enhanced backscattering spectroscopy and partial wave spectroscopic microscopy have demonstrated that the detection of the nano-architectural alterations in the rectal mucosa can accurately sense advanced adenomas elsewhere in the colon. This may lend itself to a minimally intrusive risk stratification to identify patients who are most likely to harbor neoplasia and thus benefit from colonoscopy. Bridging these advances into the endoscopy suite requires pragmatic future development. Future studies need to focus on efficacy, cost, practicality (time required, etc), and particularly developing the paradigms that will impact upon clinical decision making.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hemant K Roy
- Department of Medicine, Boston University Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
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23
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Carignan CS, Yagi Y. Optical endomicroscopy and the road to real-time, in vivo pathology: present and future. Diagn Pathol 2012; 7:98. [PMID: 22889003 PMCID: PMC3502368 DOI: 10.1186/1746-1596-7-98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Epithelial cancers account for substantial mortality and are an important public health concern. With the need for earlier detection and treatment of these malignancies, the ability to accurately detect precancerous lesions has an increasingly important role in controlling cancer incidence and mortality. New optical technologies are capable of identifying early pathology in tissues or organs in which cancer is known to develop through stages of dysplasia, including the esophagus, colon, pancreas, liver, bladder, and cervix. These diagnostic imaging advances, together as a field known as optical endomicroscopy, are based on confocal microscopy, spectroscopy-based imaging, and optical coherence tomography (OCT), and function as "optical biopsies," enabling tissue pathology to be imaged in situ and in real time without the need to excise and process specimens as in conventional biopsy and histopathology. Optical biopsy techniques can acquire high-resolution, cross-sectional images of tissue structure on the micron scale through the use of endoscopes, catheters, laparoscopes, and needles. Since the inception of these technologies, dramatic technological advances in accuracy, speed, and functionality have been realized. The current paradigm of optical biopsy, or single-area, point-based images, is slowly shifting to more comprehensive microscopy of larger tracts of mucosa. With the development of Fourier-domain OCT, also known as optical frequency domain imaging or, more recently, volumetric laser endomicroscopy, comprehensive surveillance of the entire distal esophagus is now achievable at speeds that were not possible with conventional OCT technologies. Optical diagnostic technologies are emerging as clinically useful tools with the potential to set a new standard for real-time diagnosis. New imaging techniques enable visualization of high-resolution, cross-sectional images and offer the opportunity to guide biopsy, allowing maximal diagnostic yields and appropriate staging without the limitations and risks inherent with current random biopsy protocols. However, the ability of these techniques to achieve widespread adoption in clinical practice depends on future research designed to improve accuracy and allow real-time data transmission and storage, thereby linking pathology to the treating physician. These imaging advances are expected to eventually offer a see-and-treat paradigm, leading to improved patient care and potential cost reduction. VIRTUAL SLIDES The virtual slide(s) for this article can be found here: http://www.diagnosticpathology.diagnomx.eu/vs/5372548637202968.
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