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Hedley J, Whitehead ML, Munns C, Pellett S, Abou-Zahr T, Calvo Carrasco D, Wissink-Argilaga N. Antibiotic stewardship for reptiles. J Small Anim Pract 2021; 62:829-839. [PMID: 34263937 DOI: 10.1111/jsap.13402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 05/23/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
This review discusses the general principles underlying responsible antibiotic usage in reptiles. Very little evidence underlies antibiotic usage in reptiles, and there are no published guidelines for responsible antibiotic usage. A literature search was performed to review the evidence for bacterial involvement in the pathology of selected common diseases of reptiles, allowing the development of recommendations for responsible antibiotic treatment of those diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Hedley
- Beaumont Sainsbury Animal Hospital, Royal Veterinary College, 4 Royal College Street, London, NW1 0TU, UK
| | - M L Whitehead
- Chipping Norton Veterinary Hospital, Banbury Road, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, OX7 5SY, UK
| | - C Munns
- Montgomery Veterinary Clinic, Station Road, Smeeth, Ashford, Kent, TN25 6SX, UK
| | - S Pellett
- Animates Veterinary Clinic, 2 The Green, Thurlby, Bourne, PE10 0EB, UK
| | - T Abou-Zahr
- Valley Exotics, part of Vet Partners Practices LTD T/A Valley Vets, Unit 2C Gwaelod-Y-Garth Industrial Estate, Cardiff, CF15 9AA, UK
| | - D Calvo Carrasco
- Southfields Veterinary Specialists, No 1 Bramston Way, Southfields, Laindon, Essex, SS15 6TP, UK
| | - N Wissink-Argilaga
- Chipping Norton Veterinary Hospital, Banbury Road, Chipping Norton, Oxfordshire, OX7 5SY, UK
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CLINICAL OPHTHALMIC PARAMETERS OF THE TEXAS TORTOISE ( GOPHERUS BERLANDIERI). J Zoo Wildl Med 2021; 51:879-888. [PMID: 33480568 DOI: 10.1638/2020-0034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Ophthalmic studies of the Texas tortoise (Gopherus berlandieri) established normal ophthalmic parameters for select diagnostic tests in captive tortoises and assessment of differences among individuals of differing size and health status. Sixty-one tortoises of varying weight, shell size, Mycoplasma seroprevalence, and herpesvirus exposure were included. Complete ophthalmic examinations, including neuro-ophthalmic reflexes, phenol red thread test, rebound tonometry, fluorescein staining, palpebral fissure length measurement, slit lamp biomicroscopy, indirect fundoscopy, and ocular ultrasound measurements of axial globe length, anterior chamber depth, lens thickness, and vitreous length, were recorded. All tortoises had negative dazzle and pupillary light reflexes, inconsistent menace responses, and positive palpebral reflexes. Mean ± SD tear production and intraocular pressure (IOP) were 14.2 ± 5.6 mm/15 sec and 13.8 ± 2.4 mm Hg in healthy tortoises, respectively. Mycoplasma-seropositive tortoises (with or without herpesvirus exposure) had significantly increased tear production (20.2 ± 8.1 and 19.9 ± 8.9 mm/15 sec, respectively) compared with healthy seronegative tortoises (14.2 ± 5.6 mm/15 sec; P = 0.02). As body size decreased, so too did palpebral fissure length and ocular ultrasound measurements, while IOP increased. Overall, palpebral fissure length appeared relatively small, and tear production relatively increased compared with other chelonian species, likely on the basis of the relatively arid native habitat. Further work is recommended to establish baseline values in related species, as well as comparison in aquatic versus terrestrial chelonians. The authors further suggest that the finding of relatively increased tear production in tortoises may indicate the need to rule out mycoplasmosis as a cause of upper respiratory tract disease.
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Lewis M, Bartley P, Katzer F, Morrison L, Philbey A, Eatwell K, Walker D. Conjunctival Cryptosporidium avium infection in a captive inland bearded dragon (Pogona vitticeps). J Exot Pet Med 2020. [DOI: 10.1053/j.jepm.2020.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Muramoto C, Cardoso-Brito V, Raposo AC, Pires TT, Oriá AP. Ocular ultrasonography of sea turtles. Acta Vet Scand 2020; 62:52. [PMID: 32912266 PMCID: PMC7488042 DOI: 10.1186/s13028-020-00551-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 09/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Environmental changes contribute to the development of ophthalmic diseases in sea turtles, but information on their eye biometrics is scarce. The aim of this study was to describe ophthalmic ultrasonographic features of four different sea turtle species; Caretta caretta (Loggerhead turtle; n = 10), Chelonia mydas (Green turtle; n = 8), Eretmochelys imbricata (Hawksbill turtle; n = 8) and Lepidochelys olivacea (Olive ridley; n = 6) under human care. Corneal thickness, scleral ossicle width and thickness, anterior chamber depth, axial length of the lens, vitreous chamber depth and axial globe length were measured by B-mode sonography with a linear transducer. Carapace size and animal weight were recorded. A sonographic description of the eye structures was established. RESULTS The four species presented an ovate eyeball, a relatively thin cornea, and a small-sized lens positioned rostrally in the eye bulb, near the cornea, resulting in a shallow anterior chamber. The scleral ossicles did not prevent the evaluation of intraocular structures, even with a rotated eye or closed eyelids; image formation beyond the ossicles and measurements of all proposed structures were possible. B-mode sonography was easily performed in all animals studied. The sonographic characteristics of the eye were similar among the four species. Since there was a correlation between the size of the eye structures and the size of the individual, especially its carapace size, the differences found between E. imbricata and Caretta caretta are believed to be due to their overall difference in size. CONCLUSIONS Sonography is a valuable tool in ophthalmic evaluation of these species. Only minor differences were found between the species in this study, reinforcing their phylogenetic proximity and their similar functions and habitats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caterina Muramoto
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, Avenida Adhemar de Barros, 500, Ondina, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Cardoso-Brito
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, Avenida Adhemar de Barros, 500, Ondina, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil
| | - Ana Cláudia Raposo
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, Avenida Adhemar de Barros, 500, Ondina, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil
| | - Thais Torres Pires
- Fundação Pró-Tamar, Rua Rubens Guelli 134/ 307, Itaigara, Salvador, Bahia, 41815-135, Brazil
| | - Arianne Pontes Oriá
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, Avenida Adhemar de Barros, 500, Ondina, Salvador, BA, 40170-110, Brazil.
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Camacho-Luna P, Alling C, Boykin K, Liu CC, Carter RT, Lewin AC. Ocular findings in a group of healthy captive leopard geckos. Vet Ophthalmol 2020; 23:489-496. [PMID: 32012425 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2019] [Revised: 12/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/04/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Leopard Geckos (Eublepharis macularius) are popular pets and can be affected by a range of ocular disorders. Our objective was to report ocular findings in a group of healthy captive leopard geckos and to establish reference ranges for commonly performed ocular diagnostic tests. ANIMALS STUDIED Twenty-six healthy male geckos aged 1 year old (n = 4) and >2 years old (n = 22). PROCEDURES All animals underwent ophthalmic examination, corneal esthesiometry, modified Schirmer tear test (mSTT), rebound tonometry, conjunctival bacterial aerobic and fungal culture, and measurement of ocular dimensions. Student's t test was used to compare values of corneal esthesiometry, tonometry and mSTT between groups. Multiple correlations were assessed by Pearson correlation coefficient. RESULTS All animals had a normal ocular examination. Tear production as measured with a mSTT (mean ± SD) technique was 3.1 ± 1.3 mm/min and tonometry values (mean ± SD) were 8.2 ± 1.7 mm Hg. Corneal touch threshold (median, range) was 4.4 cm, 2.5-5.0. Younger animals had a significantly increased corneal sensitivity compared to older animals (P = .0383). Results of culture showed no growth for fungal organism in any animals. Conjunctival bacterial isolation rates were low, with only 7/26 samples positive for nine bacterial species. CONCLUSIONS Leopard geckos are amenable to ophthalmic examination and ocular diagnostic database testing with minimal manual restraint.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pilar Camacho-Luna
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Christopher Alling
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Kimberly Boykin
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Chin-Chi Liu
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Renee T Carter
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
| | - Andrew C Lewin
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, USA
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Cardoso-Brito V, Raposo ACS, Pires TT, Pinna MH, Oriá AP. Conjunctival bacterial flora and antimicrobial susceptibility of captive and free-living sea turtles in Brazil. Vet Ophthalmol 2018; 22:246-255. [PMID: 29953719 DOI: 10.1111/vop.12584] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe the aerobic conjunctival bacterial flora of 3 especies of free-living and under human care sea turtles and determine its antimicrobial susceptibility in vitro. METHOD Thirty-six sea turtles (72 eyes), juveniles and adults, 7 free-living Chelonia mydas and 8 Chelonia mydas, 4 Caretta caretta, 11 Eretmochelys imbricata, and 6 Lepidochelys olivacea under human care, were evaluated. Conjunctival cultures were collected for identification of aerobic bacteria and antimicrobial susceptibility testing for ciprofloxacin, chloramphenicol, gentamicin, neomycin, oxacillin, polymyxin B, tetracycline, and tobramycin using antibiotic disks. Bacterial strains showing no sensitivity to 4 or more antimicrobials were considered multiresistant to this panel. RESULTS Bacterial growth was observed in 12/14 (85.71%) samples in the free-living sea turtles, and there was growth in 100% (58/58) of the samples from captive animals. There were 94 strains isolated and 15 species identified. There was a predominance of Gram-positive bacteria in free-living Chelonia mydas, most of which were Bacillus and Staphylococcus. The most commonly isolated Gram-negative species were enterobacteria for free-living and under human care animals. The strains were predominantly sensitive to ciprofloxacin and tobramycin, and less sensitive to oxacillin or polymyxin B. Ten multiresistant strains were isolated. Yeast were identified in 13.89% (10/72) of the samples. CONCLUSIONS These results, showing differences in the conjunctival bacterial flora of free-living and captive animals, may be helpful for diagnosis and treatment of ocular disorders in sea turtles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vinícius Cardoso-Brito
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, UFBA, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Ana Cláudia S Raposo
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, UFBA, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Thaís T Pires
- Fundação Centro Brasileiro de Proteção e Pesquisa das Tartarugas Marinhas (Fundação Pró-Tamar), Salvador, Brazil
| | - Melissa H Pinna
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, UFBA, Salvador, Brazil
| | - Arianne P Oriá
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Zootechny, Federal University of Bahia, UFBA, Salvador, Brazil
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