Tracheobronchomalacia, Tracheobronchial Compression, and Tracheobronchial Malformations: Diagnostic and Treatment Strategies

Outcomes of surgical treatment of tracheobronchomalacia in children

BACKGROUND

Tracheobronchomalacia (TBM) is characterized by excessive dynamic airway collapse. Severe TBM can be associated with substantial morbidity. Children with secondary TBM associated with esophageal atresia/tracheoesophageal fistula (EA/TEF) and vascular-related airway compression (VRAC) demonstrate clinical improvement following airway pexy surgery. It is unclear if children with severe primary TBM, without secondary etiologies (EA/TEF, vascular ring, intrinsic pulmonary pathology, or complex cardiac disease) demonstrate clinical improvement following airway pexy surgery.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The study cohort consisted of 73 children with severe primary TBM who underwent airway pexy surgery between 2013 and 2020 at Boston Children's Hospital. Pre- and postoperative symptoms as well as bronchoscopic findings were compared with Fisher exact test for categorical data and Student's t-test for continuous data.

RESULTS

Statistically significant improvements in clinical symptoms were observed, including cough, noisy breathing, prolonged respiratory infections, pneumonias, exercise intolerance, cyanotic spells, brief resolved unexplained events (BRUE), and noninvasive positive pressure ventilation (NIPPV) dependence. No significant differences were seen regarding oxygen dependence, ventilator dependence, or respiratory distress requiring NIPPV. Comparison of pre- and postoperative dynamic bronchoscopy findings revealed statistically significant improvement in the percent of airway collapse in all anatomic locations except at the level of the upper trachea (usually not malacic). Despite some initial improvements, 21 (29%) patients remained symptomatic and underwent additional airway pexies with improvement in symptoms.

CONCLUSION

Airway pexy surgery resulted in significant improvement in clinical symptoms and bronchoscopic findings for children with severe primary TBM; however, future prospective and long-term studies are needed to confirm this benefit.

Surgical Treatment of Esophageal Anastomotic Stricture After Repair of Esophageal Atresia

BACKGROUND

Anastomotic strictures (AS) after esophageal atresia (EA) repair are common. While most respond to endoscopic therapy, some become refractory and require surgical intervention, for which the outcomes are not well established.

METHODS

All EA children with AS who were treated surgically at two institutions (2011-2022) were retrospectively reviewed. Surgical repair was performed for those with AS that were either refractory to endoscopic therapy or clinically symptomatic and undergoing surgery for another indication. Anastomotic leak, need for repeat stricture resection, and esophageal replacement were considered poor outcomes.

RESULTS

139 patients (median age: 12 months, range 1.5 months-20 years; median weight: 8.1 kg) underwent 148 anastomotic stricture repairs (100 refractory, 48 non-refractory) in the form of stricturoplasty (n = 43), segmental stricture resection with primary anastomosis (n = 96), or stricture resection with a delayed anastomosis after traction-induced lengthening (n = 9). With a median follow-up of 38 months, most children (92%) preserved their esophagus, and the majority (83%) of stricture repairs were free of poor outcomes. Only one anastomotic leak occurred in a non-refractory stricture. Of the refractory stricture repairs (n = 100), 10% developed a leak, 9% required repeat stricture resection, and 13% required esophageal replacement. On multivariable analysis, significant risk factors for any type of poor outcome included anastomotic leak, stricture length, hiatal hernia, and patient's weight.

CONCLUSIONS

Surgery for refractory AS is associated with inherent yet low morbidity and high rates of esophageal preservation. Surgical repair of non-refractory symptomatic AS at the time of another thoracic operation is associated with excellent outcomes.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Surgical Management of Acute Life-Threatening Events affecting Esophageal Atresia and/or Tracheoesophageal Fistula Patients

BACKGROUND

Following surgical correction, many patients with esophageal atresia with or without tracheoesophageal fistula (EA/TEF) present to the emergency department (ED) with acute airway complications. We sought to determine the incidence and risk factors for severe acute life-threatening events (ALTEs) in pediatric patients with repaired congenital EA/TEF and the outcomes of operative interventions.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort chart review was performed on patients with EA/TEF with surgical repair and follow-up at a single centre from 2000 to 2018. Primary outcomes included 5-year ED visits and/or hospitalizations for ALTEs. Demographic, operative, and outcome data were collected. Chi-square tests and univariate analyses were performed.

RESULTS

In total, 266 EA/TEF patients met inclusion criteria. Of these, 59 (22.2%) had experienced ALTEs. Patients with low birth weight, low gestational age, documented tracheomalacia, and clinically significant esophageal strictures were more likely to experience ALTEs (p < 0.05). ALTEs occurred prior to 1 year of age in 76.3% (45/59) of patients with a median age at presentation of 8 months (range 0-51 months). Recurrence of ALTEs after esophageal dilatation was 45.5% (10/22), mostly due to stricture recurrence. Patients experiencing ALTEs received anti-reflux procedures (8/59, 13.6%), airway pexy procedures (7/59, 11.9%), or both (5/59, 8.5%) within a median age of 6 months of life. The resolution and recurrence of ALTEs after operative interventions are described.

CONCLUSION

Significant respiratory morbidity is common among patients with EA/TEF. Understanding the multifactorial etiology and operative management of ALTEs have an important role in their resolution.

TYPE OF STUDY

Original Research, Clinical Research.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III Retrospective Comparative Study.

Anesthesia for pediatric rigid bronchoscopy and related airway surgery: Tips and tricks

Bronchoscopy-guided diagnostic and interventional airway procedures are gaining in popularity and prominence in pediatric surgery. Many of these procedures have been used successfully in the adult population but have not been used in children due to a lack of appropriately sized instruments. Recent technological advances have led to the creation of instruments to enable many more diagnostic and therapeutic procedures to be done under bronchoscopic guidance. These procedures vary significantly in their length and invasiveness and require vastly different anesthetic plans that must be easily adapted to situational and procedural changes. In addition to close communication between the anesthesiology and procedural teams; an understanding of the type of procedure, anesthetic requirements, and potential patient risks is paramount to a successful anesthetic. This review will focus on new rigid bronchoscopic procedures, goals for their respective anesthetic management, and unique tips and trick for how to maintain adequate oxygenation and ventilation in each scenario.

Reoperation to correct unsuccessful vascular ring and vascular decompression surgery

OBJECTIVE

Although most children do well after operations to relieve vascular compression of the esophagus and airway, many will have persistent/recurrent symptoms. We review our surgical experience using a customized approach to correct various etiologies of failure after vascular ring/decompression surgery.

METHODS

Our institutional database identified children who underwent reoperation for persistent/recurrent symptoms after vascular ring or aberrant arterial decompression surgery between January 2014 and December 2019. Charts were reviewed for operative approaches and clinical data. Findings were analyzed by Fisher exact test for comparison between groups.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven children required reoperative surgery. Detailed preoperative workup identified 5 etiologies of failure for a customized approach. Residual scarring was corrected by lysis and rotational esophagoplasty (n = 23/27); fibrotic bands re-creating a ring were divided (n = 11); ongoing vascular compression was addressed by descending aortopexy (n = 19), aberrant subclavian division (n = 7), aortic uncrossing procedure (n = 4), and Kommerell resection (n = 8); anterior aortopexy (n = 6) and anterior tracheopexy (n = 9) corrected cartilage malformation; and tracheobronchomalacia was addressed with posterior airway pexy (n = 26). At available short-term follow-up (median 1 year), 21 of 22 patients (95%) had symptom improvement, and on bronchoscopy, the average number of airway sections with severe tracheobronchomalacia decreased from 2.8 ± 1.7 to 0.5 ± 0.9 (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

Persistent/recurrent symptoms after release of vascular compression are frequently caused by 5 different etiologies. A multidisciplinary strategy for workup and a customized operative approach can effectively treat these cases and may suggest opportunity at the index surgery to prevent reoperation and achieve optimal outcomes.

Airway Clearance in Tracheomalacia

Airway clearance is an essential part of airway maintenance to ensure the airway lumen is protected against particulate and infectious insults. The mechanisms involved in airway clearance include intrinsic structural and cellular components that can be impaired or inhibited through developmental defects and surgical interventions. Tracheomalacia is a developmental defect of the airway that can contribute to the mechanical failure to clear the airway. This chapter will review the mechanisms of airway clearance and the processes that can impair this vital process.

Experience with bioresorbable splints for treatment of airway collapse in a pediatric population

Objective

To report our experience with novel external tracheal and bronchial placed bioresorbable splints in children with severe symptomatic airway collapse.

Methods

Retrospective review of patients undergoing bioresorbable splint placement.

Results

Between July 2018 and February 2020, 14 patients received 16 external splints (trachea, n = 8; left bronchus, n = 7; and right bronchus, n = 1). Preoperatively, 7 patients had a tracheostomy; 6 of them were receiving mechanical ventilation with ventilator settings so high that they required an inpatient setting, often in an intensive care unit. Median age at implant was 14.5 months (range, 2 months-14 years). Splints were formed from moldable bioresorbable plates (RapidSorb; Synthes, Oberdorf, Switzerland) and were customized intraoperatively around a Hegar dilator. A series of Prolene sutures were placed through into the airway cartilage under simultaneous bronchoscopic and direct visualization and then tied securing the airway within the splint. Concomitant procedures were also performed in the region of the airway splints, consisting of airway reconstruction, cardiovascular procedures, and/or esophageal rotation (related to posterior tracheopexy). Median follow-up was 20 months (interquartile range, 12-21 months). Four patients required no further intervention. Although not necessarily in the splinted region, 7 patients required additional procedures, including posterior tracheobronchopexy (n = 2), temporary tracheal stent placement (n = 1), tracheal resection with end-to-end anastomosis (n = 1), closure tracheostomy (n = 1), and tracheostomy placement (n = 2). One patient required splint replacement and in 1 patient, the splint was removed later. All patients (except 2 deaths from unrelated causes) were discharged home. Three patients required mechanical ventilation at lower settings that allowed home ventilation (1 of those only at night), and 4 patients required tracheostomy collar. Indications for tracheostomy included subglottic stenosis, vocal cord paralysis, pulmonary insufficiency, small airway malacia, and laryngomalacia.

Conclusions

An external bioresorbable splint can provide temporary external support while allowing the age-proportional growth of the airway. We applied readily available bioresorbable plates that were custom-molded based on the location, shape, and length of the collapsing airway in selected patients presenting with severe tracheobronchomalacia from loss of structural support and/or cartilage deformation. Further study that includes long-term outcomes are necessary to define the best role for these external splints as part of comprehensive airway management.

Advanced Therapies for Severe Tracheobronchomalacia: A Review of the Use of 3D-Printed, Patient-Specific, Externally Implanted, Bioresorbable Airway Splints

Tracheobronchomalacia is a condition of dynamic collapse of the trachea and mainstem bronchi. The clinical significance of tracheobronchomalacia depends on its severity. Mild cases may be medically managed with limited symptomology, while severe cases require advanced therapies, lengthy hospital stays, and carry significant morbidity and mortality. Current therapies for severe tracheobronchomalacia include tracheostomy with prolonged mechanical ventilation, aortopexy, tracheobronchopexy, and intraluminal metallic, silicone, or bioresorbable stents. Three-dimensional (3D)-printed, patient-specific, bioresorbable airway splinting is a novel treatment option that is undergoing investigation in a cohort of critically ill children with severe tracheobronchomalacia. At the time of our last review of our data, 29 splints had been implanted in 15 children with intrathoracic tracheobronchomalacia. The median follow-up was 8.5 months. There were 12 long-term survivors, and all but one lived at home. This article discusses the details of our institution's development and use of 3D-printed, patient-specific, bioresorbable splints for treatment of severe tracheobronchomalacia in the pediatric population.