That dog is smarter than you know: advances in understanding canine learning, memory, and cognition

Two Separate Brain Networks for Predicting Trainability and Tracking Training-Related Plasticity in Working Dogs

Functional brain connectivity based on resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) has been shown to be correlated with human personality and behavior. In this study, we sought to know whether capabilities and traits in dogs can be predicted from their resting-state connectivity, as in humans. We trained awake dogs to keep their head still inside a 3T MRI scanner while resting-state fMRI data was acquired. Canine behavior was characterized by an integrated behavioral score capturing their hunting, retrieving, and environmental soundness. Functional scans and behavioral measures were acquired at three different time points across detector dog training. The first time point (TP1) was prior to the dogs entering formal working detector dog training. The second time point (TP2) was soon after formal detector dog training. The third time point (TP3) was three months' post detector dog training while the dogs were engaged in a program of maintenance training for detection work. We hypothesized that the correlation between resting-state FC in the dog brain and behavior measures would significantly change during their detection training process (from TP1 to TP2) and would maintain for the subsequent several months of detection work (from TP2 to TP3). To further study the resting-state FC features that can predict the success of training, dogs at TP1 were divided into a successful group and a non-successful group. We observed a core brain network which showed relatively stable (with respect to time) patterns of interaction that were significantly stronger in successful detector dogs compared to failures and whose connectivity strength at the first time point predicted whether a given dog was eventually successful in becoming a detector dog. A second ontologically based flexible peripheral network was observed whose changes in connectivity strength with detection training tracked corresponding changes in behavior over the training program. Comparing dog and human brains, the functional connectivity between the brain stem and the frontal cortex in dogs corresponded to that between the locus coeruleus and left middle frontal gyrus in humans, suggestive of a shared mechanism for learning and retrieval of odors. Overall, the findings point toward the influence of phylogeny and ontogeny in dogs producing two dissociable functional neural networks.

Canine detection of chronic wasting disease (CWD) in laboratory and field settings

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal transmissible spongiform encephalopathy that affects both free-ranging and farmed cervid species, including mule deer, white-tailed deer, and elk (Odocoileus hemionus, Odocoileus virginianus, and Cervus canadensis). Due to the long incubation period and variability of clinical signs, CWD can expand and spread to new areas before they reach diagnostically detectable levels. Antemortem testing methods currently available can be difficult to obtain and to be applied to the large numbers required for adequate surveillance. However, key volatile biomarkers could be harnessed for non-invasive antemortem surveillance. Detection dogs are the most effective tool currently available for volatile detection; dogs can effectively complete wildlife surveys at rates surpassing that of humans. This study is the first to demonstrate that trained detection dogs can be used as an antemortem test for CWD. First, we trained three dogs to differentiate between CWD-positive and CWD-negative white-tailed deer faeces in a laboratory setting. Dogs spent significantly more time at the positive sample than the negative samples, suggesting that they differentiated between the positive and negative volatile signatures. We then trained the same dogs to search for CWD-positive faecal samples in a more naturalistic field setting. In the field, dogs found 8/11 CWD-positive samples and had an average false detection rate of 13%. These results suggest that dogs can be trained to differentiate CWD-positive faeces from CWD-negative faeces in both laboratory and field settings. Future studies will compare canine accuracy to other antemortem methods, as well as improved canine training methods.

Bioinspired Stretchable Transducer for Wearable Continuous Monitoring of Respiratory Patterns in Humans and Animals

A bio-inspired continuous wearable respiration sensor modeled after the lateral line system of fish is reported which is used for detecting mechanical disturbances in the water. Despite the clinical importance of monitoring respiratory activity in humans and animals, continuous measurements of breathing patterns and rates are rarely performed in or outside of clinics. This is largely because conventional sensors are too inconvenient or expensive for wearable sensing for most individuals and animals. The bio-inspired air-silicone composite transducer (ASiT) is placed on the chest and measures respiratory activity by continuously measuring the force applied to an air channel embedded inside a silicone-based elastomeric material. The force applied on the surface of the transducer during breathing changes the air pressure inside the channel, which is measured using a commercial pressure sensor and mixed-signal wireless electronics. The transducer produced in this work are extensively characterized and tested with humans, dogs, and laboratory rats. The bio-inspired ASiT may enable the early detection of a range of disorders that result in altered patterns of respiration. The technology reported can also be combined with artificial intelligence and cloud computing to algorithmically detect illness in humans and animals remotely, reducing unnecessary visits to clinics.

Valued personality traits in livestock herding Kelpies—Development and application of a livestock herding dog assessment form

Livestock herding dogs contribute greatly to the rural economy of Australia. However, their selection currently lacks a cohesive or methodical approach. For example, there is no accessible tool for assessing Australian livestock herding dogs’ suitability for work. The purpose of the current study was to devise a herding dog assessment form, the Herding Dog Assessment Form–Personality (HDAF-P), to facilitate collection of data on relevant behavioural phenotypes of large numbers of working Kelpies and to apply the HDAF-P to identify personality traits needed for herding dog performance. The focus was on creating a succinct form that was salient and accessible to livestock herding dog owners. Wherever practical, terms and methods from published personality questionnaires were integrated. Seventeen terms were included as behavioural descriptors in the HDAF-P which was then used by 95 owners to assess a sample of 228 of their working Kelpies. Owners were also asked to rate the overall ability of their dog(s). Of these dogs, 210 (all twelve months or older) were fully described and their data were used in the analysis. Thus, the study was designed to reveal which personality traits are most critical to the overall ability of the herding dogs and to undertake an exploratory analysis of the patterns of dog behaviour revealed by the HDAF-P in non-juvenile dogs. The traits that showed the strongest correlations (using Kendall’s Tau correlation analysis) with overall ability were initiative (T = 0.41, p < 0.001), persistence (T = 0.36, p < 0.001), intelligence (T = 0.32, p < 0.001), confidence (T = 0.36, p < 0.001) and nervousness (T = -0.30, p < 0.001). An exploratory principal component analysis of trait scores revealed that 64.5% of the variance could be explained by four components that share several similarities with those reported by previous dog personality studies. These findings confirm that the HDAF-P has potential for the practical assessment of livestock herding dog personality and can elucidate traits that should be considered for prioritisation in training and breeding to optimise herding dog ability.

Effects of a Nutritional Supplement (DìRelaxTM) on Anxiety in Dogs in a Randomized Control Trial Design

Simple Summary

The effects of a nutraceutical product, DìRelax^TM, were tested in a cohort of anxious dogs by the C-BARQ questionnaire to assess the presence of problematic behaviors, and by the impossible task paradigm, an experimental procedure to explore dogs’ cognitive performance following an expectancy frustration. Hematological and biochemical analyses showed no adverse effects. The treatment with DìRelax^TM showed a positive effect on the dog’s performances, with some of the behaviors appearing improved. The results suggested that DiRelax^TM may have some ameliorative effect on the cognitive performances of anxious dogs.

Abstract

This study aimed to investigate the efficacy of DìRelax^TM, a nutraceutical formulated to reduce anxiety in dogs, using a randomized controlled trial (RCT) design. The C-BARQ questionnaire, some clinical investigations, and the impossible task test were performed in dogs before and after treatment. The C-BARQ questionnaire is particularly useful for assessing the frequency and severity of problematic behaviors. The impossible task paradigm provides insight into the decision-making processes in the realm of expectancy frustration. Results showed an ameliorative effect on the performances of treated dogs during the solvable phases, with a significant decrease in the time needed to solve the task. No behavioral difference was found between treated and untreated anxious dogs during the unsolvable phase. According to the results from the C-BARQ questionnaire, some of the behaviors appeared to improve. Clinical investigations, including a complete blood cell count and blood chemistry, showed no difference between groups, thus suggesting the safety of the product. In general, this study suggests that DìRelax^TM can be safely administered with no adverse effects and can exercise a beneficial effect on anxious dogs by enhancing their cognitive abilities, but further studies should investigate the best method of administration.

Investigating owner use of dietary supplements in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy

Epilepsy is the most common chronic neurological disorder in dogs. Some diets have been shown to have a positive impact upon the seizure activity in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy (IE), while other diets and dietary supplements (DS), although marketed as providing health benefits, lack conclusive scientific evidence on their actual beneficial effects. A web-based owner questionnaire was designed to assess how and why owners of dogs with IE use different dietary regimes and DS. The study cohort, with 297 valid responses, consisted mainly of pure-breed (82.5%) male neutered (52.9%) dogs. Over two-thirds of owners (67.7%) changed their dog's diet after their dog received a diagnosis of IE. Nearly half of the owners (45.8%) reported giving DS, the most common being coconut oil or derived medium-chain triglyceride oil (71.3%). Some owner justifications of DS use included improvement of seizure frequency (88.2%), seizure severity (61.8%) and protection from potential drug side effects (62.5%). Many owners give DS to their dog with IE. The pharmacokinetic properties of anti-epileptic drugs, such as efficacy, absorption and clearance can be influenced by other medications, diets and possibly by DS. We propose that use of DS should be considered and monitored by veterinary surgeons in epilepsy management.

Incidental spatial memory in the domestic dog (Canis familiaris)

We built upon previous work by Fujita et al. (2012, Animal Cognition, 15(6), 1055-1063) to create an experiment that investigated the presence of incidental memory for the spatial location of uneaten food in the domestic dog. Here, we dissociated potentially incidental spatial memory from the incidental memory for the characteristics of objects, in this case, food bowls. Eighteen household domestic dogs of various breeds and age were presented with four bowls. Each bowl contained either a novel object, treats the dog could consume, treats it could not consume, or it was left empty. Following a delay, the dogs returned to the laboratory and were presented with empty bowls in the same spatial orientation as the initial exposure and could move freely between bowls. This experiment required no previous training outside of basic obedience and so avoids the possibility that performance on the test was a conditioned response. We hypothesized that domestic dogs would be able to remember the location of uneaten food when presented with an unexpected memory test. We found that dogs in this study showed no evidence that they encoded spatial location in the absence of other cues that could be used to distinguish food bowls at specific locations. This suggests that dogs in previous experiments were more dependent on incidentally encoding the "what" and "in what" of this task than the "where," in the absence of features making each location distinct.

When the Nose Doesn't Know: Canine Olfactory Function Associated With Health, Management, and Potential Links to Microbiota

The impact of health, management, and microbiota on olfactory function in canines has not been examined in review. The most important characteristic of the detection canine is its sense of smell. Olfactory receptors are primarily located on the ethmoturbinates of the nasal cavity. The vomeronasal organ is an additional site of odor detection that detects chemical signals that stimulate behavioral and/or physiological changes. Recent advances in the genetics of olfaction suggest that genetic changes, along with the unique anatomy and airflow of the canine nose, are responsible for the macrosmia of the species. Inflammation, alterations in blood flow and hydration, and systemic diseases alter olfaction and may impact working efficiency of detection canines. The scientific literature contains abundant information on the potential impact of pharmaceuticals on olfaction in humans, but only steroids, antibiotics, and anesthetic agents have been studied in the canine. Physical stressors including exercise, lack of conditioning, and high ambient temperature impact olfaction directly or indirectly in the canine. Dietary fat content, amount of food per meal, and timing of meals have been demonstrated to impact olfaction in mice and dogs. Gastrointestinal (GI) microbiota likely impacts olfaction via bidirectional communication between the GI tract and brain, and the microbiota is impacted by exercise, diet, and stress. The objective of this literature review is to discuss the specific effects of health, management, and microbiota shifts on olfactory performance in working canines.

Holding back the genes: limitations of research into canine behavioural genetics

Canine behaviours that are both desirable and undesirable to owners have a demonstrable genetic component. Some behaviours are breed-specific, such as the livestock guarding by maremmas and flank sucking seen in Dobermanns. While the identification of genes responsible for common canine diseases is rapidly advancing, those genes underlying behaviours remain elusive. The challenges of accurately defining and measuring behavioural phenotypes remain an obstacle, and the use of variable phenotyping methods has prevented meta-analysis of behavioural studies. International standardised testing protocols and terminology in canine behavioural evaluations should facilitate selection against behavioural disorders in the modern dog and optimise breeding success and performance in working dogs. This review examines the common hurdles faced by researchers of behavioural genetics and the current state of knowledge.