Cerebrospinal fluid: implications in oral and maxillofacial surgery

Galen's Contribution to Head and Neck Surgery

The historical relevance of Galen has always been very high and his works have exerted a profound influence on medical thought for more than 1,300 years. This could be the main reason why his surgical expertise is often neglected. This brief study focuses on the contribution of this distinguished physician to head and neck surgery and it shows that Galen's surgical experience is well documented in his work.

Head Injury- A Maxillofacial Surgeon's Perspective

Injuries and violence are one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. A substantial portion of these injuries involve the maxillofacial region. Among the concomitant injuries, injuries to the head and cervical spine are amongst those that demand due consideration on account of their life threatening behaviour. Studies have shown that facial fractures have a strong association with traumatic brain injury. Knowledge of the types and mechanisms of traumatic brain injury is crucial for their treatment. Many a times, facial fractures tend to distract our attention from more severe and often life threatening injuries. Early diagnosis of these intracranial haemorrhage leads to prompt treatment which is essential to improve the outcome of these patients. An oral and maxillofacial surgeon should be able to suspect and diagnose head injury and also provide adequate initial management.

Intracranial repair of posttraumatic cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea associated with recurrent meningitis

OBJECTIVE

The purposes of this study are to assess the efficacy of our intracranial surgery and evaluate the association between failure after first surgical repair and the risk factors that have been applied on a group of 13 patients affected by posttraumatic cerebrospinal fluid rhinorrhea associated with recurrent meningitis.

METHODS

We retrospectively collected data on 13 patients referred to our institution. All patients had history of head trauma and experienced 2 or more episodes of meningitis.

RESULTS

Three of the 13 patients had craniectomy defect due to previous trauma and surgery, 9 patients had linear fracture, and 1 patient had no apparent fracture line on preoperative radiologic evaluation. Ten of the 13 patients had identified frontal bone fracture involving the frontal sinus during surgery. Dural tear was identified intradurally and was repaired using a fascia lata graft with or without fibrin glue. Fibrin glue was applied over the suture in 7 patients. Three of the 13 patients had large dural defects.

CONCLUSIONS

The size of bone and dural defect seems to be an important prognostic factor of episodes of meningitis. The use of fibrin glue to fixate fascia lata graft did not benefit the outcome.

A 7-year study of 1,278 patients with maxillofacial trauma and cerebrospinal fluid leak

BACKGROUND

A number of patients with facial fractures have cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) leak that may result in meningitis and other central nervous system complications. Commonly, CSF leak occurs following trauma, but the etiology and pattern of this disorder are different from region to region. This study aims to evaluate the distribution of CSF leak in patients with maxillofacial fractures in Isfahan province, Iran.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

In this retrospective cross-sectional study, 1,287 medical files of patients admitted to a medical center with head and face injuries were evaluated during a 7-year period (2004-2010). Data was obtained using descriptive analysis.

RESULTS

Of the 1,278 patients with head and maxillofacial fractures, 16 (1.25 %) males and one (0.07 %) female had CSF leak; all these cases had skull base fracture. Of these, 52.9 % had maxillary fracture, 23.5 % nasal fracture, 41.1 % orbital fracture, 11.7 % mandibular fracture, 23.5 % frontal fracture, and 41.1 % had more than one site of fracture. 58.8 % had rhinorrhea and 41.2 % otorrhea. Of all these patients with CSF leak, 8 (47 %), 2 (11.8 %), and 7 (41.2 %) cases were treated spontaneously, using lumbar drain placement, and by surgical intervention, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

Cerebrospinal fluid leak was observed most frequently in patients with fracture in the zygomatic and maxillary bone, and mostly exhibited itself as rhinorrhea and/or otorrhea. All cases with CSF leak had skull base fracture as well. However, post-traumatic CSF leaks are uncommon and are generally treated without surgical intervention (59 %). Distribution of CSF leak varies from one region to another and knowing this fact helps to manage the injury and prevent the complications.

Management of cerebrospinal fluid leak associated with craniomaxillofacial trauma

PURPOSE

The management of persistent, post-traumatic cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) rhinorrhea and otorrhea remains a surgical challenge. Repair of CSF leaks has evolved from that of an intracranial approach to one that is primarily extracranial and endoscopic. The purpose of this retrospective analysis is to determine the incidence of persistent CSF rhinorrhea and otorrhea and assess the clinical outcomes of patients presenting to a level 1 trauma center with posttraumatic CSF leaks who were managed by both surgical and nonsurgical means.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

The records of all patients with basilar skull fractures and/or severe facial trauma presenting to a major level 1 trauma center from 1991 to 2001 were reviewed. Patients diagnosed with CSF otorrhea or rhinorrhea, who had not undergone an intracranial procedure, elevation of depressed skull fractures, or received a ventriculostomy, were identified and their demographics recorded. For purposes of statistical comparison, patients were divided into 2 groups: "leak" and "no leak." All patients in the leak group were initially observed for a period of 7 to 10 days. Persistent CSF leaks were managed by CSF diversion via lumber drainage for 5 to 7 days. Extracranial repair was performed only if lumbar drainage failed to resolve the leak.

RESULTS

Seven hundred thirty-five patients were identified who met the criteria for inclusion in the study. Thirty-four patients (incidence, 4.6%) were identified with CSF leak presenting as otorrhea (n = 25 [75.8%]) or rhinorrhea (n = 9 [26.5%]), which was diagnosed by clinical, laboratory, or radiographic examination (average age, 28.2 years; age range, 2 to 80 years; 23 males and 11 females). All patients in this study experienced successful resolution of CSF otorrhea or rhinorrhea by using a variable combination of observation, CSF diversion, and extracranial repair. There were no complications or cases of meningitis. Twenty-eight patients (84.6%) experienced uncomplicated resolution of the leak without treatment in 2 to 10 days. Persistent CSF leak, defined by drainage greater than 7 days after injury, was identified in 6 patients (incidence, 0.8%), all except 1 who underwent CSF diversion via a lumbar drain for a period of 5 to 10 days. Two of these patients were treated successfully; the remaining 4 patients required surgical procedures.

CONCLUSIONS

Post-traumatic CSF leaks are uncommon and will usually resolve without surgical intervention. Successful management in refractory cases often involves a combination of observation, CSF diversion, and/or extracranial and intracranial procedures.

Orbital apex injury: trauma at the junction between the face and the cranium

Orbital apex injury is usually seen in multiply and severely injured patients who are subject to high-energy trauma. Orbital apex injury rarely occurs in isolation. By proximity, the face, the skull base, or their combination are the most likely regions to be injured in association with orbital apex trauma. The vast majority of these injuries occur as an extension of orbital, LeFort, naso-orbito-ethmoid, panfacial, sphenoid, or temporal bone fractures of the skull. Complex osseous anatomic structures with intimately related multiple neurovascular organs make injuries to the orbital apex diagnostically and therapeutically challenging. Often other facial fractures extend into the orbital apex, or the orbital apex is damaged in conjunction with fractures of the skull base. Therefore abnormal imaging findings within the orbital apex may be indicators of traumatic injury to the entire junctional zone of face and cranium. In this article, we will give an overview of normal CT anatomy, review clinical syndromes, which may indicate traumatic injury of the orbital apex and present an imaging strategy for evaluation of the orbital apex.

Rhinorrhea induced by loading of dental implants supporting an obturator prosthesis: a clinical report

This clinical report describes an unusual situation of nasal discharge that was initially considered to be caused by a leaking obturator prosthesis in a partially repaired cleft palate patient. Ultimately, the diagnosis was rhinorrhea induced by the loading of dental implants that supported the obturator. The differential diagnoses of nasal irritation, blocking of nasal drainage posterior or anterior through a premaxillary defect, vasomotor rhinitis, and gustatory rhinorrhea are presented and discussed, as well as the measures taken to reach the final diagnosis.