1
|
Impact of Fasting Status and Circadian Variation on the Pharmacokinetics of Mycophenolate Mofetil and the Glucuronide Metabolite in Renal Transplant Recipients. Transplant Direct 2023; 9:e1448. [PMID: 36875939 PMCID: PMC9977486 DOI: 10.1097/txd.0000000000001448] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 02/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an immunosuppressive prodrug often used to prevent allograft rejection following solid organ transplantation. After oral administration, MMF is rapidly hydrolyzed to the active metabolite mycophenolate acid (MPA), which is inactivated by glucuronosyltransferase to the mycophenolic acid glucuronide metabolite (MPAG). The aim was 2-fold: to investigate the impact of circadian variation and fasting versus nonfasting status on MPA and MPAG pharmacokinetics in renal transplant recipients (RTRs). Methods RTRs with stable graft function treated with tacrolimus, prednisolone, and MMF (750 mg BID) were included in this open, nonrandomized study. Two 12-h pharmacokinetic investigations were conducted in succession following morning and evening doses, both in a fasting and in a real-life nonfasting condition. Results A total of 30 (22 men) RTRs performed one 24-h investigation, and 16 repeated the investigation within 1 mo. In a real-life nonfasting state, MPA area under the curve (AUC)0-12 and C 0 failed to meet the bioequivalence criteria. Following the evening dose, mean MPA AUC12-24 was 16% lower (P < 0.001) compared with AUC0-12, and a shorter T max was observed (P = 0.09). Under fasting conditions, MPA AUC12-24 was 13% lower than AUC0-12, and the absorption rate was slower after the evening dose (P < 0.05). MPAG displayed circadian variation only under real-life conditions with lower AUC0-12 following the evening dose (P < 0.001). Conclusions Both MPA and MPAG showed circadian variation with somewhat lower systemic exposures following the evening dose with limited clinical relevance in the dosing of MMF in RTRs. Fasting status affects MMF absorption rate differently, but with similar results in systemic exposure.
Collapse
|
2
|
Barbosa-Méndez S, Salazar-Juarez A. Melatonin does not produce sedation in rats: A chronobiological study. Chronobiol Int 2019; 37:353-374. [DOI: 10.1080/07420528.2019.1702554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Susana Barbosa-Méndez
- Molecular Neurobiology and Neurochemistry of Addiction, Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alberto Salazar-Juarez
- Molecular Neurobiology and Neurochemistry of Addiction, Ramón de la Fuente Muñiz National Institute of Psychiatry, Ciudad de México, México
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Murakami T, Bodor E, Bodor N. Modulation of expression/function of intestinal P-glycoprotein under disease states. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2019; 16:59-78. [DOI: 10.1080/17425255.2020.1701653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nicholas Bodor
- Bodor Laboratories, Miami, FL, USA
- College of Pharmacy, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Circadian variation in anticonvulsant activity of valproic acid in mice. Biomed Pharmacother 2017; 95:25-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2017.08.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2017] [Revised: 07/30/2017] [Accepted: 08/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
|
5
|
Kaur G, Phillips CL, Wong K, McLachlan AJ, Saini B. Timing of Administration: For Commonly-Prescribed Medicines in Australia. Pharmaceutics 2016; 8:pharmaceutics8020013. [PMID: 27092523 PMCID: PMC4932476 DOI: 10.3390/pharmaceutics8020013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2015] [Revised: 04/03/2016] [Accepted: 04/07/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronotherapy involves the administration of medication in coordination with the body's circadian rhythms to maximise therapeutic effectiveness and minimise/avoid adverse effects. The aim of this study is to investigate the "time of administration" recommendations on chronotherapy for commonly-prescribed medicines in Australia. This study also aimed to explore the quality of information on the timing of administration presented in drug information sources, such as consumer medicine information (CMI) and approved product information (PI). Databases were searched for original research studies reporting on the impact of "time of administration" of the 30 most commonly-prescribed medicines in Australia for 2014. Further, time of administration recommendations from drug information sources were compared to the evidence from chronotherapy trials. Our search revealed 27 research studies, matching the inclusion and exclusion criteria. In 56% (n = 15) of the research studies, the therapeutic effect of the medicine varied with the time of administration, i.e., supported chronotherapy. For some medicines (e.g., simvastatin), circadian-based optimal administration time was evident in the information sources. Overall, dedicated studies on the timing of administration of medicines are sparse, and more studies are required. As it stands, information provision to consumers and health professionals about the optimal "time" to take medications lags behind emerging evidence.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gagandeep Kaur
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown NSW 2006, Australia.
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Glebe, NSW 2037, Australia.
| | - Craig L Phillips
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Glebe, NSW 2037, Australia.
- Department of Respiratory & Sleep Medicine, Royal North Shore Hospital, Sydney NSW 2065, Australia.
| | - Keith Wong
- Woolcock Institute of Medical Research, University of Sydney, Glebe, NSW 2037, Australia.
- Department of Respiratory & Sleep Medicine, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, Camperdown NSW 2050, Australia.
| | - Andrew J McLachlan
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown NSW 2006, Australia.
- Centre for Education and Research on Ageing, Concord Hospital, Concord, NSW 2137, Australia.
| | - Bandana Saini
- Faculty of Pharmacy, The University of Sydney, Camperdown NSW 2006, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Population pharmacokinetic analysis of diurnal and seasonal variations of plasma concentrations of cilostazol in healthy volunteers. Ther Drug Monit 2014; 36:771-80. [PMID: 24739664 DOI: 10.1097/ftd.0000000000000077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The background of this study was (1) to examine factors influencing cilostazol pharmacokinetics by developing a population model incorporating diurnal variation and other covariate effects and (2) to assess the feasibility of applying the developed model to determine the optimal dosing times. METHODS Data obtained from a cilostazol pharmacokinetic study consisting of 2 clinical trials (a single twice-a-day (BID) dosing trial in winter and a multiple BID dosing trial in summer) conducted in healthy Korean subjects were used for model building. A basic model was built, followed by a diurnal variation model, and then a final model was built incorporating covariates, including a seasonal difference. The optimal morning and evening dosing times were determined from simulations. RESULTS Diurnal variation in cilostazol pharmacokinetics was explained by the morning absorption rate constant being faster than in the evening, yielding values of 0.278 versus 0.234/h in summer, when 24- and 12-hour circadian rhythms were included in the model. The seasonal variation was explained by a 26.9% and a 31.8% decrease in the absorption rate constant and clearance, respectively, in winter compared with summer. Based on twice-a-day (BID) dosing, dosing times of 9 AM and 5 PM in summer and 10 AM and 7 PM in winter were expected to produce the smallest peak-to-peak fluctuations in cilostazol concentration, possibly minimizing unwanted effects of the drug. CONCLUSIONS This study demonstrated the intraday and interseasonal time-varying nature of cilostazol pharmacokinetics using a population modeling approach and developed a strategy for optimizing dosing times. It is suggested that these methods can be similarly applied to analyses and controls of other drugs that exhibit characteristics of time-varying pharmacokinetics.
Collapse
|
7
|
Zhao Y, Xin T, Ye T, Yang X, Pan W. Solid dispersion in the development of a nimodipine delayed-release tablet formulation. Asian J Pharm Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ajps.2013.11.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
|
8
|
|
9
|
Obi-Ioka Y, Ushijima K, Kusama M, Ishikawa-Kobayashi E, Fujimura A. Involvement of Wee1 in the Circadian Rhythm–Dependent Intestinal Damage Induced by Docetaxel. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2013; 347:242-8. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.113.203299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
|
10
|
|
11
|
Kaur G, Phillips C, Wong K, Saini B. Timing is important in medication administration: a timely review of chronotherapy research. Int J Clin Pharm 2013; 35:344-58. [PMID: 23329340 DOI: 10.1007/s11096-013-9749-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronotherapy involves altering the timing of medication administration to improve the overall control of a disease and to minimise treatment side-effects, and is an emerging concept in the field of therapeutics. AIM The aim of this review is to conduct an in-depth analysis of the recent literature in order to identify and evaluate the evidence base for drug chronotherapy. METHOD A literature search was conducted in three databases (Medline, Embase, International Pharmaceutical Abstracts) using the search terms "Chronotherapy", "Chronopharmacology", "Chronopharmacokinetics", "Chronopharmacodynamics", "Chronoefficacy", "Chronoformulation", "Morning and Evening", "Morning and Bedtime" and their combinations. The selection criteria for the inclusion of articles in the review included currency (years 2008-Aug 2011), publication in English language, studies done in Humans and non-review articles that pertained to 'drug' therapy. RESULTS Our search revealed a total of 192 journal articles, of which 41 articles were selected for review. The specific hypothesis for the effectiveness of chronotherapy that was tested in these 41 studies was chronoeffectiveness (n = 34), followed by chronopharmacokinetics (n = 5), chronomodulation (n = 3) and chronopharmacodynamics (n = 2). The findings from two-thirds (n = 27) of the reviewed studies, support the notion of chronotherapy. CONCLUSION The review presents the scope of chronotherapy in drug utilization. We believe that the knowledge of chronotherapy is growing and the current research for chronotherapy is promisingly in the conceptualization or early experimental phase. Going forward, chronotherapy studies should also explore genetic, gender and age related differences. Preliminary screening of new drugs for chronotherapeutic potential may be a way of enhancing quality use of medicines.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Gagandeep Kaur
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Sydney, Science Road, Camperdown, NSW 2006, Australia.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
|
13
|
Tofoli GR, Cereda CM, Groppo FC, Volpato MC, Franz-Montan M, Ranali J, de Araújo DR, de Paula E. Efficacy of liposome-encapsulated mepivacaine for infiltrative anesthesia in volunteers. J Liposome Res 2010; 21:88-94. [DOI: 10.3109/08982104.2010.483596] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
|
14
|
|
15
|
|
16
|
Sleep and medical disorders. Sleep Med 2008. [DOI: 10.1017/cbo9780511545085.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
|
17
|
Li B, Zhu J, Zheng C, Gong W. A novel system for three-pulse drug release based on “tablets in capsule” device. Int J Pharm 2008; 352:159-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2007.10.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2007] [Revised: 09/03/2007] [Accepted: 10/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
|
18
|
Fukuya H, Emoto N, Nonaka H, Yagita K, Okamura H, Yokoyama M. Circadian expression of clock genes in human peripheral leukocytes. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2007; 354:924-8. [PMID: 17274950 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2007.01.063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2006] [Accepted: 01/13/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, behavioral and physiological processes display 24-h rhythms that are regulated by a circadian system. In the present study, we investigated the possibility that the expression of clock genes in peripheral leukocytes can be used to assess the circadian clock system. We found that Per1 and Per2 exhibit circadian oscillations in mRNA expression in mouse peripheral leukocytes. Furthermore, the rhythms of Per1 and Per2 mRNA expression in peripheral leukocytes are severely blunted in homozygous Cry1/2 double-deficient mice that are known to have an abolished biological clock. We have examined the circadian expression of clock genes in human leukocytes and found that Per1 mRNA exhibits a robust circadian expression while Per2 and Bmal1 mRNA showed weak rhythm. These observations suggest that monitoring Per1 mRNA expression in human leukocytes may be useful for investigating the function of the circadian system in physiological and pathophysiological states.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hiroyuki Fukuya
- Division of Cardiovascular and Respiratory Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Satoh S, Tada H, Murakami M, Tsuchiya N, Li Z, Numakura K, Saito M, Inoue T, Miura M, Hayase Y, Suzuki T, Habuchi T. Circadian pharmacokinetics of mycophenolic Acid and implication of genetic polymorphisms for early clinical events in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 2006; 82:486-93. [PMID: 16926592 DOI: 10.1097/01.tp.0000231874.53240.ba] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We investigated the mycophenolic acid (MPA) chronopharmacokinetics and the relation between MPA circadian exposure and the incidence of acute rejection (AR). The association between selected genetic polymorphisms and clinical events or MPA circadian exposure was also studied. METHODS Thirty recipients were studied one month after renal transplantation. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) was administered twice a day at a single dose of 0.5 g in four patients, 0.75 g in eight patients, and 1 g in 18 patients. RESULTS The daytime area under the concentration-time curve (AUC0-12) was larger than the nighttime AUC0-12 (55.09 vs. 50.54 microg.hr/ml, P=0.049). The Cmax and tmax of MPA after the morning dose were respectively higher and shorter than those after the night dose. Seven patients (23.3%) had AR episodes. The MMF single dose per body weight (12.46 mg/kg in patients with AR vs. 16.99 in patients without AR), daytime and nighttime AUC0-12 (32.41 vs. 62.00 and 24.44 vs. 57.88 microg.hr/ml) and morning trough level of MPA (1.03 vs. 3.83 microg/ml) were significantly lower in patients with AR than in those without AR. The percentage of patients requiring diminished dose of MMF due to diarrhea was higher among patients with the multidrug resistance 1 (MDR1) C3435T T allele than among those with the CC genotype (P=0.049). CONCLUSION MPA pharmacokinetics showed circadian variations, and a lower MPA AUC in both daytime and nighttime was associated with the occurrence of AR in the early stage after renal transplantation. The MDR1 C3435T polymorphism might be associated with diarrhea due to MPA.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shigeru Satoh
- Department of Urology, Akita University School of Medicine, Akita, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Zanni GR, Wick JY. From chronobiology to chronotherapeutics. THE CONSULTANT PHARMACIST : THE JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY OF CONSULTANT PHARMACISTS 2005; 20:480-4, 487-91. [PMID: 16548646 DOI: 10.4140/tcp.n.2005.480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronobiology focuses on variations in biological rhythms across time. This article describes biologic cycles, particularly circadian cycles and their underlying neuroanatomy. Metabolic rhythms are reviewed and their impact on disease and symptom variation discussed. Clinical and chronopharmacological implications and diagnostic applications are presented, highlighting chronotherapy's perspective.
Collapse
|
21
|
Haye R, Høye K, Berg O, Frønes S, Ødegård T. Morning versus evening dosing of desloratadine in seasonal allergic rhinitis: a randomized controlled study [ISRCTN23032971]. Clin Mol Allergy 2005; 3:3. [PMID: 15686600 PMCID: PMC549030 DOI: 10.1186/1476-7961-3-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2004] [Accepted: 02/02/2005] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: A circadian rhythm of symptoms has been reported in allergic rhinitis and some studies have shown the dosing time of antihistamines to be of importance for optimizing symptom relief in this disease. The objective of this study was to examine the efficacy of morning vs. evening dosing of the antihistamine desloratadine at different time points during the day. METHODS: Patients >/= 18 years, with seasonal allergic rhinitis received desloratadine 5 mg orally once daily in the morning (AM-group) or evening (PM-group) for two weeks. Rhinorrhea, nasal congestion, sneezing and eye symptoms were scored morning and evening. Wilcoxon rank sum and 2-way ANOVA test were used. RESULTS: Six-hundred and sixty-three patients were randomized; 336 in the AM-group; 327 in the PM-group. No statistically significant differences were seen between the AM and PM group at any time points. In the sub-groups with higher morning or evening total symptom score no difference in treatment efficacy was seen whether the dose was taken 12 or 24 hours before the higher score time. There was a circadian variation in baseline total symptom score; highest during daytime and lowest at night. The circadian variation in symptoms was reduced during treatment. This reduction was highest for daytime symptoms. CONCLUSIONS: A circadian rhythm was seen for most symptoms being more pronounced during daytime. This was less apparent after treatment with desloratadine. No statistically significant difference in efficacy was seen whether desloratadine was given in the morning or in the evening. This gives the patients more flexibility in choosing dosing time.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Kjetil Høye
- Helsetorget Legesenter, 2408 Elverum, Norway
| | - Olof Berg
- Betania, ENT-clinic, 114 38 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Tada H, Satoh S, Iinuma M, Shimoda N, Murakami M, Hayase Y, Kato T, Suzuki T. Chronopharmacokinetics of tacrolimus in kidney transplant recipients: occurrence of acute rejection. J Clin Pharmacol 2003; 43:859-65. [PMID: 12953343 DOI: 10.1177/0091270003254797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The circadian variation of clinical pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus was studied using 16 adult renal transplant recipients 1 month after the operation. The recipients were administered tacrolimus twice a day (9 a.m. and 9 p.m.), and whole-blood samples were obtained just prior to and 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, and 12 hours after oral administration. Histological specimens of transplant kidney were collected by an allograft core biopsy on day 28 after the transplantation. There were no circadian changes in the area under the concentration-time curve (AUC0-12) (214 ng.h/mL during daytime vs. 223 ng.h/mL during nighttime) resulting from morning and night doses. A slight delay in mean residence time (MRT0-12) and time to the peak concentration (tmax) was found after night doses, but there was no statistical significance. Three patients (18.8%) had a clinical acute rejection (AR) episode 4 to 6 weeks after transplantation, and AUC0-12 at nighttime was significantly lower (18.4% on average) in patients with AR in comparison to those without AR. There was no statistical significance in maximum concentration (Cmax) or morning/night trough levels between patients with and without AR. In regard to the correlation between tacrolimus concentrations in each sampling time and AUC0-12, the morning trough concentrations were less predictable for daytime AUC0-12 (r2 = 0.125), but there was a weak correlation to nighttime AUC0-12 (r2 = 0.424). Tacrolimus concentrations at 2, 3, and 6 hours after the morning dose (C2, C3, and C6) had a good correlation against daytime AUC. The results of this study indicate that the variance on the clinical pharmacokinetics of tacrolimus between daytime and nighttime in renal transplant patients is not significant, while the lower nighttime AUC corresponded to the occurrence of AR.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Tada
- Department of Pharmaceutical Science, Akita University Hospital, Hondo 1-1-1, Akita 010-8543, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Affiliation(s)
- A Wirz-Justice
- Centre for Chronobiology, Psychiatric University Clinic, Basel, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Abstract
Sixty 3-month-old homozygote male mice were studied for circadian rhythmicity in the toxicity of florfenicol overdose. Animals were kept under a regimen of 12h light, 12h darkness (12:12 LD) with food and water available ad libitum. The LD50 (median lethal) dose was determined in a preliminary experiment and was administered to groups of 10 mice at six different clock times (hours) after light onset (HALO): 0, 4, 8, 12, 16, and 20 HALO. Cosinor analysis verified a statistically significant (P < .04) circadian rhythm in the toxic effect (mortality) of florfenicol. Mortality was greatest when the drug was injected 4h after the commencement of the activity span (16 HALO) and least when injected 4h after the start of the diurnal rest span (4 HALO). Mortality was 2.5 times greater when drug injection was given at 16 HALO than at 4 HALO.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E J Picco
- Cátedra de Farmacología, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Argentina
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|