High-dose diclofenac for postoperative analgesia after elective caesarean section in regional anaesthesia

Comparison of different nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs for cesarean section: a systematic review and network meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Cesarean section is associated with moderate to severe pain and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly employed. The optimal NSAID, however, has not been elucidated. In this network meta-analysis and systematic review, we compared the influence of control and individual NSAIDs on the indices of analgesia, side effects, and quality of recovery.

METHODS

CDSR, CINAHL, CRCT, Embase, LILACS, PubMed, and Web of Science were searched for randomized controlled trials comparing a specific NSAID to either control or another NSAID in elective or emergency cesarean section under general or neuraxial anesthesia. Network plots and league tables were constructed, and the quality of evidence was evaluated with Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) analysis.

RESULTS

We included 47 trials. Cumulative intravenous morphine equivalent consumption at 24 h, the primary outcome, was examined in 1,228 patients and 18 trials, and control was found to be inferior to diclofenac, indomethacin, ketorolac, and tenoxicam (very low quality evidence owing to serious limitations, imprecision, and publication bias). Indomethacin was superior to celecoxib for pain score at rest at 8-12 h and celecoxib + parecoxib, diclofenac, and ketorolac for pain score on movement at 48 h. In regard to the need for and time to rescue analgesia COX-2 inhibitors such as celecoxib were inferior to other NSAIDs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our review suggests the presence of minimal differences among the NSAIDs studied. Nonselective NSAIDs may be more effective than selective NSAIDs, and some NSAIDs such as indomethacin might be preferable to other NSAIDs.

The Current Consideration, Approach, and Management in Postcesarean Delivery Pain Control: A Narrative Review

Optimal postoperative analgesia has a significant impact on patient recovery and outcomes after cesarean delivery. Multimodal analgesia is the core principle for cesarean delivery and pain management. For a standard analgesic regimen, the use of long-acting neuraxial opioids (e.g., morphine) and adjunct drugs, such as scheduled acetaminophen and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, is recommended unless contraindicated. Oral or intravenous opioids should be reserved for breakthrough pain. In addition to the aforementioned use of multimodal analgesia, preoperative evaluation is critical to individualize the analgesic regimen according to the patient requirements. Risk factors for severe postoperative pain or analgesia-related adverse effects will require modifications to the standard analgesic regimen (e.g., the use of ketamine, gabapentinoids, or regional anesthetic techniques). Further investigation is required to determine analgesic drugs or dose alterations based on preoperative predictions for patients at risk of severe pain. Outcomes beyond pain and analgesic use, such as functional recovery, should be determined to evaluate analgesic treatment protocols.

Single-dose diclofenac in healthy volunteers can cause decrease in renal perfusion measured by functional magnetic resonance imaging

OBJECTIVES

We investigated changes of renal perfusion after topical and oral diclofenac administration in healthy volunteers using functional magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) with arterial spin labelling (ASL).

METHODS

Twenty-four healthy human participants (21-51 years) underwent 1.5T MRI before and 1 h after a single oral dose of diclofenac (50 mg). Twelve of 24 participants underwent an additional MRI examination following 3-day topical diclofenac administration. For renal perfusion imaging, a flow-sensitive alternating inversion-recovery TrueFISP ASL sequence was applied. Plasma concentrations of diclofenac and serum concentrations of thromboxane were determined.

KEY FINDINGS

After oral diclofenac application, large interindividual differences in plasma concentrations were observed (range <3-4604 nm). Topical diclofenac application did not result in relevant systemic diclofenac levels (range 5-75 nm). MRI showed a significant reduction of renal perfusion in individuals with diclofenac levels ≥225 nm (baseline: 347 ± 7 vs diclofenac: 323 ± 8 ml/min/100 g, P < 0.01); no significant differences were observed in participants with diclofenac levels <225 nm. Diclofenac levels correlated negatively with thromboxane B2 levels pointing towards target engagement.

CONCLUSIONS

Single-dose diclofenac caused a decrease in renal perfusion in participants with diclofenac levels ≥225 nm. We demonstrated that even a single dose of diclofenac can impair renal perfusion, which could be detrimental in patients with underlying chronic kidney disease or acute kidney injury.

The Analgesic Efficacy of Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Agents (NSAIDs) in Patients Undergoing Cesarean Deliveries: A Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES

Postoperative pain after cesarean delivery, which accounts for approximately 1 in 3 live births in the United States, can be severe in many patients. Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory agents (NSAIDs) are potent analgesics that are effective in the treatment of postoperative pain. In this meta-analysis, we assessed the analgesic efficacy of NSAIDs in postoperative cesarean delivery patients.

METHODS

An electronic literature search of the Library of Medicine's PubMed, Cochrane CENTRAL, Scopus, and EMBASE databases was conducted in May 2013 and updated in January 2015 (Appendix, Supplemental Digital Content 1, http://links.lww.com/AAP/A174). Searches were limited to randomized controlled trials. The primary outcome variable was visual analog scale or numerical rating scale pain scores. Secondary outcomes included cumulative postoperative opioid consumption and opioid-related adverse effects (drowsiness/sedation, nausea, and vomiting). Data extraction was performed independently by 2 reviewers. Extracted data were input into Review Manager.

RESULTS

Twenty-two randomized controlled trials compared a NSAID (n = 639) to a control (n = 674). Patients in the NSAID group versus control reported lower pain scores at 12 hours (P = 0.003) and at 24 hours (P < 0.001). Subgroup analysis showed a significant difference in pain scores at 24 hours, with patients receiving NSAIDs via intravenous/intramuscular (P < 0.001) route, but not the oral (P = 0.39) or rectal routes (P = 0.99). Significantly lower average pain scores were reported for pain with movement at 24 hours in the NSAID group (P = 0.001). Patients in the NSAID group versus controls consumed significantly less opioids (P < 0.001) and had significantly less drowsiness/sedation (P = 0.03), but there was no significant difference between the groups with regard to nausea or vomiting (P = 0.48 and P = 0.17, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

The perioperative use of NSAIDs in cesarean delivery patients will result in a significantly lower pain scores, less opioid consumption, and less drowsiness/sedation but no difference in nausea or vomiting compared to those who did not receive NSAIDs. Further research should address the optimal NSAID regimen and examine the effect of improved analgesia on patient-centered outcomes such as patient satisfaction and quality of breastfeeding.

Enantiomer-specific ketorolac pharmacokinetics in young women, including pregnancy and postpartum period

Racemic ketorolac clearance (CL) is significantly higher at delivery, but S-ketorolac disposition determines the analgesic effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of pregnancy and postpartum period on enantiomer-specific (S and R) intravenous (IV) ketorolac pharmacokinetics (PKs). Data in women shortly following cesarean delivery (n=39) were pooled with data in a subgroup of these women that was reevaluated in the later postpartum period (postpartum group, n=8/39) and with eight healthy female volunteers. All women received single IV bolus of 30 mg ketorolac tromethamine. Five plasma samples were collected at 1, 2, 4, 6, and 8 hours and plasma concentrations were determined using high performance liquid chromatography. Enantiomer-specific PKs were calculated using PKSolver. Unpaired analysis showed that distribution volume at steady state (Vss, L/kg) for S- and R-ketorolac was significantly higher in women shortly following cesarean delivery (n=31) compared to postpartum group (n=8) or to healthy female volunteers (n=8). CL, CL to body weight, and CL to body surface area (CL/BSA) for S- and R-ketorolac were also significantly higher in women following delivery. In addition, S/R-ketorolac CL/BSA ratio was significantly higher at delivery. Paired PK analysis in eight women shortly following delivery and in postpartum group showed the same pattern. Finally, the simultaneous increase in CL and Vss resulted in similar estimates for elimination half-life in both unpaired and paired analysis. In conclusion, pregnancy affects S-, R-, and S/R-ketorolac disposition. This is of clinical relevance since S-ketorolac (analgesia) CL is even more increased compared to R-ketorolac CL, and S/R-ketorolac CL ratio is higher following delivery compared to postpartum period or to healthy female volunteers.

Comparison of the effects of lornoxicam versus diclofenac in pain management after cardiac surgery: A single-blind, randomized, active-controlled study

BACKGROUND

Inadequate pain management after cardiac surgery may result 10 in increased morbidity and length of hospital stay. Although opioids are the mainstay of postoperative analgesia, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) may be used instead to avoid the adverse effects (AEs) associated with opioids. Lornoxicam is a newly developed NSAID, the use of which is increasing. However, lornoxicam has not been studied for use in pain management after cardiac surgery.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to compare the efficacy and tolerability 10 of lornoxicam and diclofenac sodium, an NSAID well established for use in pain management after major surgery, in pain management after coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG).

METHODS

This single-blind, randomized, active-controlled study was conducted 10 at the Gaziantep University Hospital, Gaziantep, Turkey. Adult patients scheduled to undergo valve or CABG surgery for the first time were included. Patients were premedicated with diazepam 10 mg PO at 10 PM on the evening before surgery. General anesthesia was induced using fentanyl, midazolam, and propofol, and maintained using fentanyl and isoflurane in pure oxygen. After extubation and when they stated that they felt pain, patients were randomly assigned to 1 of 2 treatment groups: lornoxicam 8 mg IM q8h or diclofenac 75 mg IM q12h, for 48 hours. Meperidine 1 mg/kg IM was given for additional analgesia when needed (rescue medication). Pain relief was assessed using an I1-point visual analog scale (0 = no pain to 10 = worst pain imaginable) immediately before the first injection (baseline), and at 15 and 30 minutes and 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12, 18, 24, and 48 hours after the first injection. Sedation was assessed using a 5-point scale (0 = awake and alert to 4 = deep sedation) at the same time points. Tolerability was assessed by monitoring of AEs using patient interview and laboratory analyses.

RESULTS

Forty patients were enrolled in the study (30 men, 10 women; 10 mean [SD] age, 54.4 [11.1 ] years; 20 patients per treatment group). The demographic and clinical characteristics and mean baseline pain relief scores were statistically similar between the 2 treatment groups. The mean pain relief scores at 15 and 30 minutes were statistically similar to baseline values in the 2 treatment groups. However, the mean pain relief scores at ≥1 hour after the first injection were significantly lower compared with baseline values (both groups, P < 0.05 at time points ≥1 hour). No significant between-group differences in mean pain relief scores were found at any time point. The overall mean pain relief scores were statistically similar between the 2 treatment groups. The mean sedation scores were significantly higher at 30 minutes, 1 hour, and 2 hours after the first injection in the diclofenac group compared with the lornoxicam group (all, P < 0.05). No AEs were observed. The need for rescue medication was statistically similar between the 2 treatment groups (lornoxicam, 2 patients; diclofenac, 3 patients).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study of adult patients who underwent CABG, the efficacy 10 of lornoxicam and diclofenac were similar in postoperative pain management. Both study drugs were well tolerated.

A randomised controlled trial of parecoxib, celecoxib and paracetamol as adjuncts to patient-controlled epidural analgesia after caesarean delivery

The benefit of combining non-opioid analgesics with neuraxial opioids for analgesia after caesarean delivery has not been clearly established. Larger doses of paracetamol or cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors have not been evaluated. A randomised, double blind, double-dummy, parallel group placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted among women having elective caesarean delivery under spinal anaesthesia, followed by pethidine patient-controlled epidural analgesia. Patients received placebos (group C); intravenous parecoxib 40 mg then oral celecoxib 400 mg at 12 hours (group PC); intravenous paracetamol 2 g then oral 1 g six-hourly (group PA); or these regimens combined (group PCPA). The primary outcome was 24-hour postoperative patient-controlled epidural pethidine use and the main secondary outcome was postoperative pain. One hundred and thirty-eight women were recruited but 27 subsequently met exclusion criteria, leaving 111 who were randomised, allocated and analysed by intention-to-treat (n=23, 30, 32 and 26 in groups C, PC, PA and PCPA respectively). There were no differences between groups for pethidine consumption, based on either intention-to-treat (median 365, 365, 405 and 360 mg in groups C, PC, PA and PCPA respectively, P=0.84) or per protocol analysis (17 major violations). Dynamic pain scores did not differ between groups but requirement for, and dose of, supplementary oral tramadol was least in group PCPA (incidence 23% versus 48%, 70% and 58% in groups C, PC and PA respectively, P=0.004). The addition of regular paracetamol, cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors or both to pethidine patient-controlled epidural post-caesarean analgesia did not provide a pethidine dose-sparing effect during the first 24 hours.

The effects of indomethacin, diclofenac, and acetaminophen suppository on pain and opioids consumption after cesarean section

BACKGROUND

Cesarean section is one of the common surgeries of women. Acute post-operative pain is one of the recognized post-operative complications.

AIMS

This study was planned to compare the effects of suppositories, indomethacin, diclofenac and acetaminophen, on post-operative pain and opioid usage after cesarean section.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

In this double-blind clinical trial study, 120 candidates of cesarean with spinal anesthesia and American Society of Anesthesiologists (ASA) I-II were randomly divided into four groups. Acetaminophen, indomethacin, diclofenac, and placebo suppositories were used in groups, respectively, after operation and the dosage was repeated every 6 h and pain score and opioid usage were compared 24 h after the surgery. The severity of pain was recorded on the basis of Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and if severe pain (VAS > 5) was observed, 0.5 mg/kg intramuscular pethidine had been used.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS USED

The data were analyzed in SPSS software version 15 and analytical statistics such as ANOVA, Chi-square, and Tukey's honestly significant difference (HSD) post-hoc.

RESULTS

Pain score was significantly higher in control group than other groups, and also pain score in acetaminophen group was higher than indomethacin and diclofenac. The three intervention groups received the first dose of pethidine far more than control group and the distance for diclofenac and indomethacin were significantly longer (P < 0.001). The use of indomethacin, diclofenac, and acetaminophen significantly reduces the amount of pethidine usage in 24 h after the surgery relation to control group.

CONCLUSIONS

Considering the significant decreasing pain score and opioid usage especially in indomethacin and diclofenac groups rather than control group, it is suggested using of indomethacin and diclofenac suppositories for post-cesarean section analgesia.

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs during pregnancy and the initiation of lactation

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and aspirin, which are available as "over-the counter" medications in most countries, are widely used by both pregnant and lactating women. They are popular non-opioid analgesics for the treatment of pain after vaginal and operative delivery. In addition, NSAIDs are used for tocolysis in premature labor, and low-dose aspirin has a role in the prevention of preeclampsia and recurrent miscarriage in antiphospholipid syndrome. NSAIDs and aspirin may affect fertility and increase the risk of early pregnancy loss. In the second trimester their use is considered reasonably safe, but has been associated with fetal cryptorchism. In the third trimester, NSAIDs and aspirin are usually avoided because of significant fetal risks such as renal injury, oligohydramnios, constriction of the ductus arteriosus (with potential for persistent pulmonary hypertension in the newborn), necrotizing enterocolitis, and intracranial hemorrhage. Maternal administration or ingestion of most NSAIDs results in low infant exposure via breastmilk, such that both cyclooxygenase-1 and cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors are generally considered safe, and preferable to aspirin, when breastfeeding.

Analgesia after caesarean delivery

As the number of women giving birth by caesarean increases throughout most of the developed world, so too is research into postoperative pain relief for these women. Like most other post-surgical populations, the new mother needs effective pain relief so that she can mobilise early but she also has the added responsibility of needing to care for her newborn baby. There is no 'gold standard' for post-caesarean pain management; the number of options is large and the choice of method is at least partly determined by drug availability, regional and individual preferences, resource limitations and financial considerations. Most methods rely on opioids, supplemented with anti-inflammatory analgesics, nerve blocks or other adjunctive techniques. The aim of this review is to detail commonly used opioid-based methods and to review the evidence supporting non-opioid methods, when incorporated into a multimodal approach to post-caesarean pain management. Areas of promising research are also discussed.

Patient comfort during regional anesthesia

Regional anesthesia has many advantages, which include low cost, ease of administration, and avoidance of risks associated with general anesthesia. Injection of local anesthetic via a needle as part of a regional anesthetic technique can be a stressful experience. The goal is to produce a relaxed patient who is comfortable and cooperative throughout the duration of surgery. The topics of regional anesthetic techniques, drug combinations, and adjunct measures such as sedation have been described extensively in the literature. The issue of patient comfort has not been reviewed in its entirety. This review seeks to collate known information in a systematic format and provide a framework for patient comfort during regional anesthesia.

Patients with rheumatoid arthritis undergoing surgery: how should we deal with antirheumatic treatment?

OBJECTIVES

To review published data on the perioperative management of antirheumatic treatment and perioperative outcome in patients with rheumatoid arthritis (RA).

METHODS

The review is based on a MEDLINE (PubMed) search of the English-language literature from 1965 to 2005, using the index keywords "rheumatoid arthritis" and "surgery". As co-indexing terms the different disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs) as well as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and "glucocorticoids" were used. In addition, citations from retrieved articles were scanned for additional references. Furthermore, because the number of published articles is so limited, relevant abstracts presented at congresses were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

Continuation of methotrexate (MTX) appears to be safe in the perioperative period. Only a limited number of studies address the use of leflunomide and the results are conflicting. Because of the very long drug half-life, its discontinuation would need to be of long duration and is probably not necessary. Data on hydroxychloroquine do not show increased risks of infection. Regarding sulfasalazine, there are no studies from which definite answers could be drawn on whether it should be withheld perioperatively. Preliminary data show that the risk of infections during treatment with TNF-blocking agents may be lower than initially expected. The only available recommendation (Club Rhumatismes et Inflammation, CRI) suggests discontinuing the drugs before surgery for several weeks, depending on the risk of infection and the drug used. They should not be restarted until wound healing is complete. To avoid the antiplatelet effect during surgery, NSAIDs other than aspirin should be withheld for a duration of 4 to 5 times the drug half-life. Patients with chronic glucocorticoid therapy and suppressed hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis need perioperative supplementation.

CONCLUSIONS

While continuation of MTX likely is safe, data on other DMARDs are sparse. In particular, more data on the perioperative use of the biologic agents are needed.

Dose response to intrathecal diamorphine for elective caesarean section and compliance with a national audit standard

BACKGROUND

This double-blind randomised controlled trial investigated the most appropriate dose of intrathecal diamorphine to use with high-dose diclofenac as part of a multimodal analgesic regimen for caesarean section under subarachnoid block. We also wished to establish whether it was possible to satisfy the Royal College of Anaesthetists postoperative pain audit recommendation for this patient group.

METHODS

One hundred and twenty patients presenting for elective caesarean section under subarachnoid block were recruited and divided into four groups. Treatment was standard except that patients were given either placebo or one of three different doses of intrathecal diamorphine (100 microg, 200 microg or 300 microg). All patients were given regular paracetamol, high-dose diclofenac and an hourly subcutaneous diamorphine regimen for breakthrough pain.

RESULTS

There was a dose-dependent improvement in analgesia with intrathecal diamorphine. Only 37.9% of patients given 300 microg of intrathecal diamorphine had a visual analogue pain score of 3/10 or less throughout the study. There was a dose-dependent increase in the incidence of itching with intrathecal diamorphine although the incidence of nausea and vomiting was similar between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

We found that for elective caesarean section under subarachnoid block with high dose diclofenac, analgesia was optimal with 300 microg of intrathecal diamorphine. Even the highest dose of intrathecal diamorphine did not achieve the Royal College of Anaesthetists postoperative audit target that 90% of patients should have a pain score of no more than 3/10. We believe that this target is too arduous.