Approach to complex upper extremity injury: an algorithm

The clinical effects of artificial dermis in the treatment of skin and soft tissue defects accompanied by bone or tendon exposure

OBJECTIVE

The clinical effects of artificial dermis in treating skin and soft tissue defects accompanied by bone or tendon exposure were assessed.

APPROACH

A retrospective analysis was conducted on the clinical data of 45 cases of skin and soft tissue defects accompanied by bone or tendon exposure admitted to the trauma surgery department of Fujian Provincial Hospital between February 2018 and August 2020. They were divided into the artificial dermis and control groups. The wound was assessed using the Vancouver Scar Scale (mVSS), and the postoperative visual analogue scale (VAS) scores were recorded at 3, 6, 9, and 12 months after surgery. At the 12-month after surgery, skin sensation recovery was evaluated using the criteria of the British Medical Research Council (BMRC).

RESULTS

The cases included 26 males and 19 females, aged 50 to 85 years. All patients were followed up for an average of 13.8 months (range: 12-18 months). Compared with controls, the wound healing time of the observation group was longer (35.8 ± 10.6 vs. 28.5 ± 4.8, P = 0.007), without significant differences for the number of operations and length of hospitalization. The mVSS scores were not different between groups (Pgroup = 0.294), but the scores decreased with time (Ptime < 0.001), and the group×time interaction was significant (Pinteraction < 0.001). Similarly, the VAS scores were not different between groups (Pgroup = 0.667), but the scores decreased with time (Ptime < 0.001); the group×time interaction was not significant (Pinteraction = 0.274). At the 12-month mark following the operation, in the artificial dermis group, the MCRR score was S3+ in 23 patients, while it ranged from S0 to S3 in two patients; in the control group, S3+ was observed in 17 patients, and S0-S3 in three (P = 0.815).

CONCLUSION

Artificial dermis treatment is considered a safe and effective alternative therapy for patients with skin and soft tissue defects accompanied by bone or tendon exposure who cannot tolerate or are unwilling to undergo autologous skin flap transplantation. It offers the advantages of minimal donor site trauma, simplicity in operation, and favorable postoperative functional recovery.

Alternative Flap Options for Upper Extremity Reconstruction

For major upper limb defects, a wide range of established pedicled and free flap options can be used. These include the latissimus dorsi/thoracodorsal artery perforator, lateral arm, posterior interosseous artery, rectus abdominis, gracilis, and anterolateral thigh flaps. Technical proficiency is essential, and favorable success rates in terms of functional and esthetic outcomes can be achieved. Herein, alternative flap options (both pedicled and free) are introduced and discussed through a few illustrative case examples.

Management of Complex Upper Extremity Trauma with Associated Vascular Injury

Introduction Combined soft tissue and vascular injuries of the upper extremity pose several challenges at once to the plastic surgeon. Many decisions have to be taken urgently that will influence the salvage or amputation of the affected extremity. The aim of this article was to provide an evidence-based outline for the management of such injuries. Learning objectives of this article are as follows: (1) approach to a patient with upper extremity composite tissue and vascular injury presenting to the emergency, (2) decision-making as to when to salvage and when to go for amputation of the traumatized upper extremity, (3) role of imaging in emergency situation, (4) role of fasciotomy, (5) intraoperative sequencing of steps, and (6) options for vascular reconstruction and the flaps used for coverage. After reading this article, the reader should have a clear understanding of the management of vascular injury in a patient with composite defects of upper extremity.

Intramedullary Steinmann pin nailing of the ulna: an option for the damage control orthopedics treatment of forearm fractures in open injuries in polytraumatized patients - A description of the technique and presentation of a case series

INTRODUCTION

Forearm shaft fracture is common in young adult patients and associated with soft tissue and organ injuries. In open fractures in polytrauma patients, damage control orthopaedics (DCO) is well indicated. The aim of this study is to describe intramedullary Steinmann pin fixation of the ulna as a DCO procedure for the forearm and present a case series.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TECHNIQUE

A 3.0 mm Steinmann pin is inserted retrograde in the ulna proximal fragment through the fracture site using the open wound as the approach. With direct visualization of the reduction, the pin is advanced into the distal fragment. The reduction of the longitudinal axis and shortening is thus achieved.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

This method was used for all open fractures of forearm both-bone fractures in polytrauma patients undergoing DCO from 2014 to 2019. The alignment and length of the ulna were evaluated radiographically after pin fixation and before and after definitive fixation. Differences in the need for secondary procedures and infection rate between DCO and definitive fixation were also evaluated.

RESULTS

There were 30 males (85.7%) with an average age of 32.9 ± 12.0 years and a mean ISS (Injury Severity Score) of 29.4 (range, 18.0-41.0). The most common associated injuries were thoracic trauma (62.8%) and head trauma (45.7%). In the radius and ulna, 51.4% and 60.0% of fractures, respectively, were multifragmentary (types B and C). Gustilo type IIIA represented 77.1% of the injuries. Pin fixation achieved good alignment and length in all cases. The mean time between DCO and definitive fixation was 12.0 days, and no secondary procedure was needed, nor any case developed either superficial or deep infection. The conversion from DCO to definitive fixation was considered easy in all cases.

CONCLUSION

Intramedullary Steinmann pin fixation of the ulna is a viable option for DCO for forearm both-bone fractures in open fractures in polytrauma patients.

Customized reconstruction of complex soft tissue defects in the upper extremities with variants of double skin paddle anterolateral thigh perforator flap

BACKGROUND

Complex soft tissue defects in the upper extremities are challenging to reconstruct. The purpose of this study was to share our experience with using four variants of double skin paddle Anterolateral Thigh Perforator (ALT) flap to achieve the customized reconstruction of the complex defects.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From January 2007 to December 2019, 15 patients (14 male and 1 female) aged 15-61 years underwent double skin paddle ALT flap reconstruction of the upper extremities. 10 wounds were located in the wrist or hand, while four wounds were located in the forearm, and one wound in the elbow. All the wounds were large with non-adjacent defects and with or without a dead space. Four variants of double skin paddle anterolateral thigh perforator flaps were harvested according to the patient's needs.

RESULTS

The flaps received were consisted of 7 classic double skin paddle ALT flap, 4 vastus lateralis muscle-chimeric double skin paddle ALT flap, 2 microdissected thin double skin paddle ALT flap, and 2 flow-through double skin paddle ALT flap. The size of the skin flap ranged from 6 × 6 cm² to 26 × 7 cm², and the size of the muscle segment ranged from 5 × 2 × 1 cm³ to 16× 6 × 2 cm³. Flap necrosis related to the pedicle kinking was observed in one patient, while the rest of the flaps survived without complications. The follow-up period ranged from 7 to 54 months, with a median of 15.6 months. The mean value of the qDASH scores at the last follow-up was 27.12 ± 16.51 (range, 11.4-59.1). None of the patients showed wrist flexion deformity. Postoperatively, three patients developed finger joint stiffness, which correlated with the severity of the injury.

CONCLUSIONS

Variants of double skin paddle ALT flaps provide versatile design and allow customized reconstruction of complex soft tissue defects in the upper extremities with limited donor site morbidity. We believe that the algorithm provided will help the surgeons with deciding among variants of double skin paddle ALT flap.

Management of upper extremity war injuries in the subacute period: A review of 62 cases

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we aimed to describe the relationship between the localization of rarely seen upper extremity war injuries and their complications in the subacute period, and define our preferences for surgery and antibiotic use.

METHODS

Patients with an upper extremity war injury who presented to our institution between 2015 and 2018 were retrospectively evaluated. Data regarding demographics, time between injury and presentation, location of injury, type of damage, complications, treatment methods, infection rates and antibiotic use were recorded. Tissue defects, fracture fixation, neurovascular damage, infection development and treatment approaches were analyzed.

RESULTS

Sixty-two male patients with isolated upper extremity injuries (mean age: 31.66 ± 8.28 years) were included in the study. The average time between trauma and hospitalization was 14 days. The mean hematocrit (Hct) level at presentation was 36.3 ± 6.8%. Patients had been followed up for an average period of 95.6 ± 32.1 days. Twenty-nine patients (46.8%) had nerve injury, eight (12.9%) had arterial injury that required repair, and 23 had infection (37.1%), of which five developed osteomyelitis. Infection was polymicrobial in nine cases and monobacterial in 14. A positive correlation was found between the presence of fracture and nerve injury (p = 0.013). The frequency of nerve injuries due to gunshot wounds was higher in the mid-section and lower part of the arms and in the proximal forearm when compared to other regions (p = 0.011). The infection rates were significantly higher in patients with fractures (p = 0.033). The mean hematocrit (Hct) level at presentation of the patients with infection (32.1 ± 6.3%) was significantly lower than that of those who did not have infection (38.8 ± 5.9%) (p<0.001).

CONCLUSION

Upper extremity war injuries require case-specific solutions. Microbiological samples should be taken prior to empirical antibiotic treatment for infection management and rational antibiotic use principles should be applied according to the culture and antibiogram results. The holistic and ambiguous character of nerve injuries often requires early exploration and combined reconstructive interventions. Arterial injuries can be overlooked by physical examination alone and thus routine angiography should be performed. Completion of the bone and soft tissue reconstructions in the same session using a holistic approach minimizes the possible risks.

Management of complex forearm defects: A multidisciplinary approach

Complex forearm defects with significant damage to, or loss of skin, tendon, muscle, bone and neurovascular structures represent a great challenge for surgeons. The management of such injuries, whether a result of trauma or tumor resection, is focused on preservation of the damaged limb and restoration of hand function. A multidisciplinary approach combining plastic and orthopedic surgical expertise in a coordinated team is proposed to address these challenging cases. The authors have laid emphasis on adequate debridement for wound bed preparation, bone stabilization and reconstruction for a stable bony framework, vascular repair for early revascularization, musculotendinous and nerve reconstruction as well as vascularized tissue coverage on a case-to-case basis to facilitate optimal functional recovery. They also maintain that besides expedient surgical treatment, early mobilization based on an individualized rehabilitation program as well as psychological and socio-professional supports are necessary means of achieving rapid and successful social integration.

[Arterial trauma of the upper limbs: Particularities of the population in Tunisia and risk factors for amputation]

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of our study was to review the population at risk of upper limb arterial injury, to determinate the rate of upper limb salvage and the predictive factors of limb loss.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study, involving 128 patients with upper extremity arterial trauma operated between January first, 2006 and June 30, 2017. Exclusion criteria were arterial ligation, primary limb amputation and arterial iatrogenic injuries. End points were immediate technical success, primary patency and limb salvage rate.

RESULTS

The average age was 27.7 years with a sex ratio M/F=41, causes of trauma were self-inflicted wounds (51%), assaults (23%), road traffic accidents (10%), work accidents (9%) and domestic accidents (7%). Injured arteries were brachial (66.5%) usually because of self-inflicted injuries; arteries of the forearm (31%) and axillery arteries (2.5%). The techniques of arterial repair were vein graft interposition in 52% of cases, end-to-end anastomosis in 23%, primary arterial repair in 21% and venous patch in 4%. Eight reconstructions occluded during the first week (6.25%). Four patients required secondary amputation and limb salvage rate was 96.8%. After a median follow-up time of 62 days, only 21% were followed at 3 months. Mechanism of injury, soft tissue loss and arterial reconstruction thromboses were selected as factors influencing the rate of limb salvage. One death occurred at day 14 secondary to multi-component poly-trauma.

CONCLUSION

Prompt diagnosis, appropriate multidisciplinary management of the upper extremity arterial trauma and a readiness to revise the vascular repair early in the event of failure will maximize patient survival and upper extremity salvage. Associated soft tissue injury is a poor limb salvage factor.

Bilateral vascular repair in a patient with multiple upper extremity injury presenting at a teaching hospital—Case report and literature review

Penetrating trauma to the upper extremity will usually result in vascular injuries, which mostly also involves nerves and tendons. Morbidity related to upper extremity vascular injuries usually occurs due to the associated injuries of the nerves, tendons, and bone. Early presentation to a trauma centre and prompt intervention will reduce morbidity associated with upper extremity vascular injuries.

Damage control orthopaedics: State of the art

Damage control orthopaedics (DCO) originally consisted of the provisional immobilisation of long bone - mainly femur - fractures in order to achieve the advantages of early treatment and to minimise the risk of complications, such as major pain, fat embolism, clotting, pathological inflammatory response, severe haemorrhage triggering the lethal triad, and the traumatic effects of major surgery on a patient who is already traumatised (the “second hit” effect). In recent years, new locations have been added to the DCO concept, such as injuries to the pelvis, spine and upper limbs. Nonetheless, this concept has not yet been validated in well-designed prospective studies, and much controversy remains. Indeed, some researchers believe the indiscriminate application of DCO might be harmful and produce substantial and unnecessary expense. In this respect, too, normalised parameters associated with the acid-base system have been proposed, under a concept termed early appropriate care, in the view that this would enable patients to receive major surgical procedures in an approach offering the advantages of early total care together with the apparent safety of DCO. This paper discusses the diagnosis and treatment of severely traumatised patients managed in accordance with DCO and highlights the possible drawbacks of this treatment principle.

Reconstruction of post-traumatic upper extremity soft tissue defects with pedicled flaps: An algorithmic approach to clinical decision making

PURPOSE

Pedicled flaps are still the workhorse flaps for reconstruction of upper limb soft tissue defects in many centers across the world. They are lifeboat options for coverage in vessel deplete wounds. In spite of their popularity existing algorithms are limited to a particular region of upper limb; a general algorithm involving entire upper limb which helps in clinical decision making is lacking. We attempt to propose one for the day to day clinical practice.

METHODS

A retrospective analysis of patients who underwent pedicled flaps for coverage of post-traumatic upper extremity (arm, elbow, forearm, wrist & hand) soft tissue defects within the period of January 2016 to October 2017 was performed. Patients were divided into groups according to the anatomical location of the defects. The flaps performed for different anatomical regions were enlisted. Demographic data and complications were recorded. An algorithm was proposed based on our experience, with a particular emphasis made to approach to clinical decision making.

RESULTS

Two hundred and twelve patients were included in the study. Mean age was 27.3 years (range: 1-80 years), 180 were male, and 32 were female. Overall flap success rate was 98%, the following complications were noted marginal flap necrosis requiring no additional procedure other than local wound care in 32 patients (15%), partial flap necrosis requiring flap advancement or extra flap in 15 patients (7%), surgical site infection in 11 patients (5%), flap dehiscence requiring re-suturing in 5 patients (2.4%), total flap necrosis 4 patients (2%).

CONCLUSION

The proposed algorithm allows a reliable and consistent method for addressing diverse soft tissue defects in the upper limb with high success rate.

Patterns of Complex Carpal Injuries in the Hand from Fireworks

Purpose To describe the various patterns of complex carpal and metacarpal fracture dislocations observed in a consecutive series of firework injuries and the operative management performed. Materials and Methods We performed a retrospective study of seven consecutive patients (six males; mean age = 22 ± 13, range, 8-39 years) who presented to a level I trauma center with firework injuries to the hand between July 2014 and January 2016. Results All injuries were sustained while a lighted firework was held in the hand. The mean length of hospital stay was 13.9 ± 13.8 (range, 4-46) days with an average of 3 ± 2.6 (range, 1-7) surgeries required for both bony and soft tissue reconstruction. Three patterns of injury were seen: type I-no carpal involvement; type II-carpometacarpal joint (CMCJ) dislocations and isolated carpal dislocations; type III-CMCJ dislocations with axial carpal dissociation. One patient had a type I injury, three had a type II injury, and three had a type III injury. Of patients with a type III injury, two of the three had simultaneous axial-radial and axial-ulnar involvement as well as a midcarpal dissociation with divergent dissociation of the carpus and metacarpals. Conclusion The severity of carpal injuries resulting from fireworks is highly variable but is likely to follow predictable patterns due to the position of the hand and the location of the firework prior to explosion. Surgical reconstruction can be challenging, but adequate outcomes with a functional hand can be achieved through a systematic approach. Type of Study/Level of Evidence Therapeutic level IV.

Soft Tissue Reconstruction of Complete Circumferential Defects of the Upper Extremity

BACKGROUND

Upper extremity soft tissue defects with complete circumferential involvement are not common. Coupled with the unique anatomy of the upper extremity, the underlying etiology of such circumferential soft tissue defects represent additional reconstructive challenges that require treatment to be tailored to both the patient and the wound. The aim of this study is to review the various options for soft tissue reconstruction of complete circumferential defects in the upper extremity.

METHODS

A literature review of PubMed and MEDLINE up to December 2016 was performed. The current study focuses on forearm and arm defects from the level at or proximal to the wrist and were assessed based on Tajima's classification (J Trauma 1974). Data reviewed for analysis included patient demographics, causality, defect size, reconstructive technique(s) employed, and postoperative follow-up and functional outcomes (when available).

RESULTS

In accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, 14 unique articles were identified for a total of 50 patients (mean=28.1 years). Underlying etiologies varied from extensive thermal or electrical burns to high impact trauma leading to degloving or avulsion, crush injuries, or even occur iatrogenically after tumor extirpation or extensive debridement. Treatment options ranged from the application of negative pressure wound dressings to the opposite end of the spectrum in hand transplantation.

CONCLUSIONS

With the evolution of reconstructive techniques over time, the extent of functional and aesthetic rehabilitation of these complex upper extremity injuries has also improved. The proposed management algorithm comprehensively addresses the inherent challenges associated with these complex cases.