The Association of Decision-to-Incision Time for Cesarean Delivery with Maternal and Neonatal Outcomes

Implementation of a crash cesarean section policy and its impact on maternal and neonatal outcomes at King Abdulaziz University Hospital: A retrospective study

A typical surgical technique for pregnant women with potentially fatal problems affecting the mother or fetus is an emergency cesarean section (ECS). The decision-to-delivery interval (DDI) for ECS should be within 30 minutes. The objective of this study was to investigate crash ECS indications and effects on maternal and neonatal outcomes. In this retrospective study, all women undergoing crash cesarean section (CS) at Obstetrics and Gynecology department at King Abdulaziz University hospital, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia during 2022 and 2023 were evaluated. Data about demographic and obstetric characteristics of mother, ECS indications, DDI, and outcomes for mothers and newborns was gathered from the patient's sheet. One hundred 3 crash CS were performed during study period. Crash CS indications were fetal bradycardia (64.1%), prolapsed cord (24.3%), uterine rupture (6.8%), and severe antepartum hemorrhage (4.9%). D-D time range from 2 to 30 minutes. DDI was ≤15 minutes in 90 patients (87.4%) and >15 minutes in 13 patients (12.6%). Gestational age was <32 weeks (16.7%), between 32 and <37 weeks (15.5%), and ≥37 weeks (68.0%). Good maternal outcome was reported in 89 (86.4%), while 24 (13.6%) had complications. Intensive care unit maternal admission was significantly higher in gestational age 32 to <37 weeks versus <32 weeks and ≥37 weeks of gestation (18.8% vs 5.9% and 2.9%, P = .050). Fetal outcome was good in 69 (67.0%), while 34 (33.0%) had complications. Neonatal body weights, Apgar score at 1, 5, 10 minutes, and umbilical cord arterial pH were significantly decreased in preterm versus termed neonates (P < .0001, P < .0001, P < .0001, P = .014, and P = .003). Moreover, respiratory distress syndrome, jaundice, intubation, neonatal deaths, and sepsis were significantly higher in preterm versus term deliveries (P < .0001, P = .029, P < .0001, P = .010, and P = .031). Good neonatal outcome was significantly higher (P < .0001); while respiratory distress syndrome was significantly lower (P = .007) in deliveries with DDI ≤ 15 minutes versus > 15 minutes. The 30-minute standard for DDI time interval may be a feasible guideline at least for level-3 hospitals. Crash CS indication was mostly due to fetal bradycardia. The maternal and neonatal outcomes were better in term than preterm deliveries. The positive effect of very short intervals on neonatal outcome still needs to be proven.

The association between decision and incision time by race and ethnicity

BACKGROUND

Identifying and reducing inequities in the delivery of care is crucial to improving health disparities in obstetric outcomes. This study sought to evaluate the effect of race and ethnicity on time from decision for cesarean delivery to incision following implementation of a case classification system.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was performed to identify women who had cesarean deliveries from October 1, 2020, to March 31, 2021, at a single, tertiary care institution. Medical records were reviewed for demographics and cesarean delivery case classification. Case classification was divided into STAT cesarean delivery (within 10 minutes), level A (within 30 minutes), level B (within 60 minutes), or scheduled/unscheduled other. The "decision to incision time" was determined from the time the case surgical order was placed to the case start time.

RESULTS

There were 565 eligible individuals who had a cesarean delivery during the study period, with 13.6% identifying as Black/African American, 29.0% as Hispanic/Latina, and 57.3% as White. Hispanic women were more likely to need interpreter services than other race/ethnicity groups. There was no statistically significant difference in "decision to incision time" by race/ethnicity. Within the total cohort, 51.8% of cesarean delivery cases went within the goal time according to case classification, which also did not differ by race/ethnicity.

CONCLUSIONS

Race and ethnicity do not impact cesarean delivery "decision to incision time" or case classification. Only half of cesarean deliveries went within the goal time, so further evaluation to improve workflow and improve this metric for all patients is needed.

Association between decision-to-delivery time and neonatal outcomes: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Decision-to-delivery time (DDT), a crucial factor during the emergency caesarean section, may potentially impact neonatal outcomes. This study aims to assess the association between DDT and various neonatal outcomes.

METHODS

A comprehensive search of PubMed, Scopus, Cochrane Library, and Google Scholar databases was conducted. A total of 32 eligible studies that reported on various neonatal outcomes, such as Apgar score, acidosis, neonatal intensive unit (NICU) admissions and mortality were included in the review. Studies were selected based on predefined eligibility criteria, and a random-effects inverse-variance model with DerSimonian-Laird estimate of tau² was used for meta-analysis. Heterogeneity and publication bias were assessed using I² statistics and Egger's test, respectively.

RESULTS

The meta-analysis revealed a significant association between DDT < 30 min and increased risk of Apgar score < 7 (OR 1.803, 95% CI: 1.284-2.533) and umbilical cord pH < 7.1 (OR 4.322, 95% CI: 2.302-8.115), with substantial heterogeneity. No significant association was found between DDT and NICU admission (OR 0.982, 95% CI: 0.767-1.258) or neonatal mortality (OR 0.983, 95% CI: 0.565-1.708), with negligible heterogeneity. Publication bias was not detected for any outcomes.

CONCLUSIONS

This study underscores the association between shorter DDT and increased odds of adverse neonatal outcomes such as low Apgar scores and acidosis, while no significant association was found in terms of NICU admissions or neonatal mortality. Our findings highlight the complexity of DDT's impact, suggesting the need for nuanced clinical decision-making in cases of emergency caesarean sections.

Is Faster Better? Relationships of Cesarean Acuity with Risk of Low Apgar Scores and Fetal Acidemia

OBJECTIVE

Timely response to obstetrical emergencies is highly desired. The recommendation for decision-to-incision (DTI) time in cesarean delivery (CD) of not more than 30 minutes was issued to prevent neonatal hypoxic-ischemic morbidities. We analyzed the efficiency with which an institutional-specific CD acuity classification system (emergent case: target DTI ≤ 15 minutes; urgent case: target DTI ≤ 30 minutes) reflected in the actual DTI time, Apgar scores, and newborn acid-base status.

STUDY DESIGN

Data on all 610 cesarean sections (CSs) performed over a 14-month period at a tertiary medical center were retrospectively extracted. Cases grouped by target DTI time categories were compared for proportions in low Agar scores and fetal acidosis. Multivariable regression was used to identify clinical variables associated with the need for neonatal resuscitation.

RESULTS

During the study period, 60 (10%) of CSs were emergent, 296 (49%) urgent, and 254 (41%) elective. The target DTI ≤ 15 minutes was achieved in 68% of emergent CSs with 93% having a DTI ≤ 30 minutes. Among urgent surgeries, the target DTI ≤ 30 minutes was reached in 48% of cases with 83% having DTI ≤ 45 minutes. Compared with both urgent and scheduled procedures the incidence of newborn acidosis and Apgar scores ≤4 and ≤7 was the highest among emergent CSs. The proportion of moderate and severe acidosis for deliveries with DTI ≤ 15 minutes was significantly higher compared with procedures with DTI 16 to 30 and >30 minutes. The need for neonatal resuscitation, including intubation, was independently associated with fetal acidosis, low gestational age, surgery acuity level, general anesthesia, but not with the actual DTI time.

CONCLUSION

Adherence to tight DTI time targets is pragmatically difficult. The need for neonatal resuscitation varies with the acuity of the procedure but not with the actual DTI interval, implying that within certain time limits, the indication for surgery plays a greater role in the status of the newborn than the speed of the CS.

KEY POINTS

· Adherence to prespecified DTI times for cesarean is pragmatically difficult.. · Emergent CS had the highest proportion of newborns with acidosis and low Apgar scores despite shorter DTI.. · The need for neonatal resuscitation associated with fetal acidemia, prematurity and general anesthesia..

The "30-minute rule" for expedited delivery: fact or fiction?

Initially developed from hospital feasibility data from the 1980s, the "30-minute rule" has perpetuated the belief that the decision-to-incision time in an emergency cesarean delivery should be <30 minutes to preserve favorable neonatal outcomes. Through a review of the history, available data on delivery timing and associated outcomes, and consideration of feasibility across several hospital systems, the use and applicability of this "rule" are explored, and its reconsideration is called for. Moreover, we have advocated for balanced consideration of maternal safety with rapidity of delivery, encouraged process-based approaches, and proposed standardization of terminology regarding delivery urgency. Furthermore, a standardized 4-tier classification system for delivery urgency, from class I, for a perceived threat to maternal or fetal life, to class IV, a scheduled delivery, and a call for further research with a standardized structure to facilitate comparison have been proposed.

Assessment of compliance with a color code protocol for non-elective cesarean section and its impact on time to delivery interval and neonatal outcomes

INTRODUCTION

We set out to assess the compliance with a cesarean section color code protocol and its impact on maternal and neonatal outcomes since its implementation in our maternity ward.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study including a sample of 200 patients per year who underwent a non-elective cesarean section delivery in Rennes University Hospital from January 1, 2015 to December 31, 2018. Patients were grouped by year and by color code (red, orange or green). The main outcome was compliance with the protocol (color code in accordance with indication for cesarean section) and compliance with the corresponding decision-delivery interval. Secondary outcomes were maternal and neonatal outcomes.

RESULTS

Eight hundred patients were included during the study period. There was no significant difference in patient characteristics over the years. There was a significant improvement in protocol compliance: full compliance increased from 22.4% in 2015 to 76.5% in 2018 (p < 0.0001). The respect of the 15 min decision-delivery interval in red code protocol increased between 2015 and 2018 (p = 0.0020).

CONCLUSION

We observed a significant improvement in compliance with the color code protocol between 2015 and 2018 and in the 15 min decision-delivery deadline for the red code.

Twin Vaginal Deliveries in Labor Rooms: A Cost-Effectiveness Analysis

OBJECTIVE

Twin vaginal deliveries (VDs) are often performed in the operating room (OR) given the theoretical risk of conversion to cesarean delivery (CD) for the aftercoming twin. We aim to evaluate the cost-effectiveness of performing VDs for twin gestations in the labor and delivery room (LDR) versus OR.

STUDY DESIGN

We conducted a cost-effectiveness analysis using a decision-analysis model that compared the costs and effectiveness of two strategies of twin deliveries undergoing a trial of labor: (1) intended delivery in the LDR and 2) delivery in the OR. Sensitivity analyses were performed to assess strength and validity of the model. Primary outcome was incremental cost-effectiveness ratio (ICER) defined as cost needed to gain 1 quality-adjusted life year (QALY).

RESULTS

In the base-case scenario, where 7% of deliveries resulted in conversion to CD for twin B, attempting to deliver twins in the LDR was the most cost-effective strategy. For every QALY gained by delivering in the OR, 243,335 USD would need to be spent (ICER). In univariate sensitivity analyses, the most cost-effective strategy shifted to delivering in the OR when the following was true: (1) probability of successful VD was less than 86%, (2) probability of neonatal morbidity after emergent CD exceeded 3.5%, (3) cost of VD in an LDR exceeded 10,500 USD, (4) cost of CD was less than 10,000 USD, or (5) probability of neonatal death from emergent CD exceeded 2.8%. Assuming a willingness to pay of 100,000 USD per neonatal QALY gained, attempted VD in the LDR was cost effective in 51% of simulations in the Monte Carlo analysis.

CONCLUSION

Twin VDs in the LDR are cost effective based on current neonatal outcome data, taking into account gestational age and associated morbidity. Further investigation is needed to elucidate impact of cost and outcomes on optimal utilization of resources.

KEY POINTS

· Cost effectiveness of twin VDs in the LDR versus OR was assessed.. · Twin VDs in the LDR are cost effective based on current neonatal outcome data.. · Attempted VD in the LDR was cost effective in 51% of simulations in the Monte Carlo analysis..

Decision-to-Delivery Interval After Implementation of a Specific Protocol for Emergency Cesarean Delivery Because of Category III Fetal Heart Rate Tracings

OBJECTIVE

To assess the frequency of emergency cesarean deliveries with decision-to-delivery intervals (DDIs) of less than 30 minutes after implementation of a code blue protocol following National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) category III fetal heart rate (FHR) tracings. The secondary aim was to compare differences in pregnancy outcomes for deliveries completed before and after the 30-minute threshold.

METHODS

All women undergoing a code blue emergency cesarean delivery between July 2015 and December 2021 were included. Information from electronic medical records, including baseline demographics, clinical characteristics, and pregnancy outcomes were retrospectively reviewed.

RESULTS

Among 254 code blue cesarean deliveries, 246 (96.9%) had a DDI of ≤30 minutes. The median DDI was 17 (14.3-20.0) minutes. No significant differences in adverse maternal and neonatal outcomes were detected between deliveries with DDIs greater than and less than 30 minutes. The incidence of stillbirth was higher in the >30 minute-DDI group than in the ≤30 minute-DDI group (12.5% vs. 2%; P = 0.176).

CONCLUSIONS

After implementation of a code blue protocol for emergency cesarean delivery, a DDI within 30 minutes was achieved in 97% of cases with category III FHR tracings. The incidence of stillbirth was dramatically higher in the >30 minutes-DDI group. We encourage all obstetric units to consider every factor that could reduce the DDI by developing specific, local protocols.

Decision to Incision and Risk for Fetal Acidemia, Low Apgar Scores, and Hypoxic Ischemic Encephalopathy

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to assess risk for fetal acidemia, low Apgar scores, and hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy based on decision-to-incision time interval in the setting of emergency cesarean delivery.

STUDY DESIGN

This unplanned secondary analysis of the Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units prospective observational cesarean registry dataset evaluated risk for hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy, umbilical cord pH ≤7.0, and Apgar score ≤4 at 5 minutes based on decision-to-incision time for emergency cesarean deliveries. Cesarean occurring for nonreassuring fetal heart rate monitoring, bleeding previa, nonreassuring antepartum testing, placental abruption, or cord prolapse was classified as emergent. Decision-to-incision time was categorized as <10 minutes, 10 to <20 minutes, 20 to <30 minutes, 30 to <50 minutes, or ≥50 minutes. As secondary outcomes umbilical cord pH ≤7.1, umbilical artery pH ≤7.0, and Apgar score ≤5 at 5 minutes were analyzed.

RESULTS

Of 5,784 women included in the primary analysis, 12.4% had a decision-to-incision interval ≤10 minutes, 20.2% 11 to 20 minutes, 14.9% 21 to 30 minutes, 18.2% 31 to 50 minutes, and 16.5% >50 minutes. Risk for umbilical cord pH ≤7.0 was highest at ≤10 and 11 to 20 minutes (10.2 and 7.9%, respectively), and lowest at 21 to 30 minutes (3.9%), 31 to 50 minutes (3.9%), and >50 minutes (3.5%) (p < 0.01). Risk for Apgar scores ≤4 at 5 minutes was also higher with decision-to-incision intervals ≤10 and 11 to 20 minutes (4.3 and 4.4%, respectively) compared with intervals of 21 to 30 minutes (1.7%), 31 to 50 minutes (2.1%), and >50 minutes (2.0%) (p < 0.01). Hypoxic ischemic encephalopathy occurred in 1.5 and 1.0% of women with decision-to-incision intervals of ≤10 and 11 to 20 minutes compared with 0.3 and 0.5% for women with decision-to-incision intervals of 21 to 30 minutes and 31 to 50 minutes (p = 0.04). Risk for secondary outcomes was also higher with shorter decision-to-incision intervals.

CONCLUSION

Shorter decision-to-incision times were associated with increased risk for adverse outcomes in the setting of emergency cesarean.

KEY POINTS

· Shorter intervals likely occur with higher risk cases.. · Shorter intervals were associated with higher neonatal risk.. · Shorter intervals were associated with low cord pH..

A specific protocol to shorten the decision-to-delivery interval for emergency caesarean section

The achievement of recommended decision-to-delivery interval (DDI) of ≤30 minutes in emergency caesarean section (CS) is relatively low in developing countries. This study was aimed to compare DDI in emergency CS before and after the implementation of a specific care process improvement protocol, called 'code blue'. A total of 300 women underwent emergency CS were included; 150 consecutive cases before (during 2015-2016) and the other 150 consecutive cases after (during 2017-2018) 'code blue' implementation. Timing of decision-to-delivery process was compared. The results showed that median DDI was significantly shorter after 'code blue' implementation (22 vs. 52.5 minutes, p<.001). DDI of ≤30 minutes was achieved in 80% of the women under 'code blue' compared to 8% before implementation (p<.001). Significant improvements were observed regardless of decision time. Pregnancy and neonatal outcomes were comparable between the two periods. The implementation of 'code blue' protocol for emergency CS results in significantly shorter DDI and other time intervals.Impact StatementWhat is already known on this subject? Achievement of recommended decision-to-delivery interval (DDI) of ≤30 minutes in emergency caesarean section is relatively low in developing countries. Various setting-specific care improvement processes have been reported to shorten DDI.What do the results of this study add? A multidisciplinary care improvement process ('code blue') that developed according to specific evidence and based on a hospital's context can significantly shorten DDI as well as other time intervals in women requiring emergency CS.What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? The 'code blue' protocol could be used as a model for other hospitals and health care settings to develop their own specific quality improvement process in order to shorten DDI for emergency CS. Collaboration and communication between all staff members could help in better identification of significant barriers as well as development of appropriate solutions. Further studies are also needed to determine whether the shortened DDI could improve neonatal outcomes.

Defining the decision-to-delivery interval at caesarean section: narrative literature review and proposal for standardisation

The decision-to-delivery interval is a widely used term at non-elective caesarean section. While the definition may appear self-evident, there is no universally agreed consensus about when this period begins and ends. We reviewed the literature for original research utilising the terms 'decision-to-delivery', 'decision-to-incision' or 'incision-to-delivery' and examined definitions used for decision, delivery, incision, as well as any additional time intervals that were assessed. Our analysis demonstrated an inconsistent non-standardised approach to defining these intervals, which might have clinical practice and medicolegal ramifications. We propose that the decision-to-delivery interval should be defined as follows: the interval between the time at which the senior obstetrician makes the decision that a caesarean section is required and the time at which the fetus (or first fetus in the case of multiples) is delivered. The decision time should ideally be recorded contemporaneously in the medical notes or partogram.

Evaluating the Decision-to-Delivery Interval in Emergency Cesarean Sections and its Impact on Neonatal Outcome

BACKGROUND/AIM

In Germany, performance of an emergency Cesarean section (ECS) is recommended within an interval of ≤20 min from decision to delivery (DDI). The aim of the study was to assess the duration of DDI in ECS as well as its impact on neonatal outcome.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Data from 437 patients at a single, tertiary care hospital were retrospectively analysed regarding influence on the duration of DDI. Subsequently the impact of DDI on neonatal outcome and incidence of adverse neonatal outcome was analysed.

RESULTS

DDI of ECS performed outside core working hours was significantly prolonged (p<0.001). Shorter DDI showed a statistically worse arterial cord blood pH (p=0.001, r=0.162) and base excess (p=0.05; r=0.094). Duration of DDI had no significant impact on the incidence of adverse neonatal outcome (p=0.123).

CONCLUSION

Awareness of influence on DDI might contribute to expediting DDI, but duration of DDI showed no impact on the incidence of adverse neonatal outcome. Data were not adequate to suggest a recommendation for DDI time standards.

Maternal caesarean section infection (MACSI) in Sierra Leone: a case-control study

Sierra Leone is the country with highest maternal mortality and infections are the underlying cause in 11% of maternal deaths, but the real burden remains unknown. This study aims to determine the incidence and risk factors of surgical site infection (SSI) post-caesarean section (CS) in women admitted to Princess Christian Maternity Hospital (PCMH) in Freetown, Sierra Leone. A prospective case–control (1:3 ratio) study was implemented from 1 May 2018 to 30 April 2019 and 11 women presenting with suspected or confirmed infection post-CS were screened for inclusion as a case. For each case, three patients undergoing CS on the same day and admitted to the same ward, but not presenting with SSI, were selected as controls. The post-CS infection rate was 10.9%. Two hundred and fifty-four clinically confirmed cases were enrolled and matched with 762 control patients. By multivariable analysis, the risk factors for SSI were: being single (odds ratio (OR) 1.48, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.36–1.66), low education level (OR 1.68, 95% CI 1.55–1.84), previous CS (OR 1.27, 95% CI 1.10–1.52), presenting with premature membranes rupture (OR 1.49, 95% CI 1.18–1.88), a long decision–incision time (OR 2.08, 95% CI 1.74–2.24) and a high missing post-CS antibiotic doses rate (OR 2.52, 95% CI 2.10–2.85).

A multidisciplinary approach to improving process and outcomes in unscheduled cesarean deliveries

BACKGROUND

Effective communication between providers of various disciplines is crucial to the quality of care provided on labor and delivery. The lack of standardized language for communicating the clinical urgency of cesarean delivery and the lack of standardized processes for responding were identified as targets for improvement by the Obstetric Patient Safety Committee at the Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania. The committee developed and implemented a protocol aimed at improving the performance of our multidisciplinary team and patient outcomes.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate whether implementation of a multidisciplinary protocol that standardizes the language and process for performing unscheduled cesarean deliveries had reduced the decision to incision interval and improved maternal and neonatal outcomes.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This was a retrospective cohort study of patients who underwent unscheduled cesarean delivery pre- and postimplementation of a protocol standardizing language, communication, provider roles, and processes. The primary outcome was cesarean decision to incision interval overall and stratified by fetal and nonfetal indications for delivery. Secondary outcomes included decision to operating room and operating room to incision intervals, operative complications, use of general anesthesia, maternal transfusion, 5-minute Apgar score <6, and umbilical cord arterial pH <7.2. Descriptive statistics were calculated. Continuous variables were tested for normality and compared using the Student t test or Mann-Whitney U test as appropriate. Categorical variables were characterized by proportions and compared by the χ² or Fisher exact test as appropriate.

RESULTS

There were 121 and 119 subjects in the pre-and postimplementation groups respectively, collected from corresponding 3-month periods. There were no significant differences in demographics, comorbidities, or indications for cesarean delivery between groups. Overall median decision to incision interval did not differ between the pre- and postimplementation groups. There was a significant decrease in median decision to incision interval (63 versus 50 minutes, P = .02) in cesarean deliveries performed for nonfetal indications. This was driven by a shorter median decision to operating room interval (32.5 versus 23 minutes, P = .01). The incidences of operative complications (35% [19/55] versus 11% [6/53], P < .01) and cord pH <7.2 (36% [20/55] versus 17% [9/53], P = .02) were also decreased in cesarean deliveries performed for nonfetal indications. The incidences of general anesthesia, maternal transfusion, and 5-minute Apgar score <6 did not differ. Outcomes did not differ between the pre- and postimplementation groups in cesarean deliveries performed for fetal indications.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of a multidisciplinary process improvement protocol that standardizes language, roles, and processes for unscheduled cesarean deliveries was associated with a reduced decision to incision interval and improved maternal and neonatal outcomes in cesarean deliveries performed for nonfetal indications. Standardized process implementation on labor and delivery has the potential to improve patient outcomes.

Distance from Home Birth to Emergency Obstetric Services and Neonatal Outcomes: A Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

Little is known about the relationship between distance from hospital services and the outcomes of planned home births. We examined whether greater driving distance from a hospital with continuous cesarean capability was associated with a higher risk of adverse neonatal outcome among individuals who were planning to give birth at home.

METHODS

Using an intention-to-treat analysis, we conducted a population-based cohort study of 11,869 individuals who planned to give birth at home in Ontario, Canada, between April 1, 2012, and March 31, 2015. We used postal codes to determine the driving time from maternal residence to the closest hospital offering level 2 or higher maternity care services (ie, hospital with continuous cesarean birth capability). We used log binomial regression analysis to compare the outcomes of individuals who planned a birth more than a 30-minute drive from a level 2 hospital with those of individuals whose births were planned to occur within 30 minutes. We adjusted for maternal age, parity, gestational age, season, and maternal material deprivation quintile.

RESULTS

We found no statistically significant difference in the rates of 5-minute Apgar scores less than 7 (adjusted relative risk [aRR], 1.02; 95% CI, 0.95-1.10; P = .58), perinatal mortality, meconium aspiration syndrome, and emergency medical service usage. Neonates born to individuals who planned to give birth at a greater distance from a hospital had a lower rate of neonatal intensive care unit admission (aRR, 0.6; 95% CI, 0.44-0.81; P = .001).

DISCUSSION

We found no increased risk of adverse neonatal outcomes for births that were planned to occur more than 30 minutes from a hospital. Our findings can be considered, along with individual risk factors and contextual factors, in decision making about the choice of home birth for individuals who live more than half an hour from a hospital with cesarean capacity.