Complications occurring during conservative management of splenic trauma in children

The Diagnosis and Management of Pediatric Blunt Abdominal Trauma-A Comprehensive Review

Blunt abdominal trauma in childhood has always been full of diagnostic and therapeutic challenges that have tested the clinical and radiological skills of pediatric surgeons and radiologists. Despite the guidelines and the studies carried out so far, to this day, there is no absolute consensus on certain points of view. Around the world, a paradigm shift towards non-operative treatment of hemodynamically stable children, with low complication rates, is noticeable. Children with blunt abdominal trauma require a standardized methodology to provide the best possible care with the best possible outcomes. This comprehensive review systematizes knowledge about all aspects of caring for children with blunt abdominal trauma, from pre-hospital to post-hospital care.

[Endovascular technologies in the treatment of patients with blunt abdominal trauma]

Trauma is one of the leading causes of disability and mortality in working-age population. Abdominal injuries comprise 20-30% of traumas. Uncontrolled bleeding is the main cause of death in 30-40% of patients. Among abdominal organs, spleen is most often damaged due to fragile structure and subcostal localization. In the last two decades, therapeutic management has become preferable in patients with abdominal trauma and stable hemodynamic parameters. In addition to clinical examination, standard laboratory tests and ultrasound, as well as contrast-enhanced CT of the abdomen should be included in diagnostic algorithm to identify all traumatic injuries and assess severity of abdominal damage. Development of interventional radiological technologies improved preservation of damaged organs. Endovascular embolization can be performed selectively according to indications (leakage, false aneurysm, arteriovenous anastomosis) and considered for severe damage to the liver and spleen, hemoperitoneum or severe polytrauma. Embolization is essential in complex treatment of traumatic vascular injuries of parenchymal abdominal organs. We reviewed modern principles and methods of intra-arterial embolization for the treatment of patients with traumatic injuries of the liver and spleen.

Detection of post-traumatic abdominal pseudoaneurysms by CEUS and CT: A prospective comparative global study (the PseAn study)-study protocol

The success of non-operative management in trauma increased with the availability of new-generation CT scan machines, endoscopy, and angiography, becoming the standard of care in hemodynamically stable trauma patients with abdominal solid organ injuries, with a success rate of 78% to 98%. Post-traumatic pseudoaneurysms (PAs) can develop at any region of an injured artery and they may cause delayed bleeding in splenic or hepatic trauma, with an incidence in patients treated with NOM of 2%-27% and 1.2%-6.1% respectively. Diagnosis is made by angiography, contrast-enhanced computer tomography (CT), or Doppler Ultrasound (US) while the use of contrast-enhanced ultrasound (CEUS), has increased in recent years although few data are available about CEUS feasibility in the follow-up setting. The PseaAn study has been designed to assess the role of CEUS in the follow-up of abdominal trauma by defining its sensitivity, specificity and predictive values compared with abdominal CT scan. The PseAn study is a multi-centric international diagnostic cross-sectional study initiated by the Level I Trauma Center of the Niguarda Ca' Granda Hospital in Milan, Italy. To study the role of CEUS in detecting post-traumatic splenic, hepatic, and renal PAs compared with the gold standard of CT with intravenous contrast at different follow-up time points, and whether it can replace CT scan in the follow-up of solid organ injuries, patients with OIS III and above will undergo a follow-up with both a CEUS and CT scan to detect post-traumatic parenchymal pseudoaneurysm within two to five days from injury. The use of CEUS in the follow-up of abdominal trauma follow-up (particularly blunt trauma) has increased, to minimise the use of ionizing radiation and contrast media and encouraging results have been published during the last decade showing that CEUS is an accurate technique for evaluating traumatic lesions of solid abdominal organs. Conclusions We think that CEUS, which is underused worldwide, is a useful and safe tool that may replace CT scan in follow-up with the major advantage of reduced radiation. Our current study may give stronger evidence to support this view.

The management and outcome of paediatric splenic injuries in the Netherlands

Background

Non-operative management (NOM) is generally accepted as a treatment method of traumatic paediatric splenic rupture. However, considerable variations in management exist. This study analyses local trends in aetiology and management of paediatric splenic injuries and evaluates the implementation of the guidelines proposed by the American Paediatric Surgical Association (APSA) in a level 1 trauma centre.

Methods

The charts of paediatric patients with blunt splenic injury (BSI) who were admitted or transferred to a level 1 trauma centre between 2003 and 2020 were retrospectively assessed. Information pertaining to demographics, mechanism of injury, injury description, associated injuries, intervention and outcomes were analysed and compared to international literature.

Results

There were 130 patients with BSI identified (63.1% male), with a mean age of 11.3 ± 4.0 and a mean Injury Severity Score (ISS) of 21.6 ± 13.7. Bicycle accidents were the most common trauma mechanism (23.1%). Sixty-four percent were multi-trauma patients, 25% received blood transfusions, and 31% were haemodynamically unstable. Mean injury grade was 3.0, with 30% of patients having a high-grade injury. In total, 75% of patients underwent NOM with a 100% efficacy rate. Total splenectomy rate was 6.2%. Four patients died due to brain damage.

Patients with a high-grade BSI (grades IV–V) had a significantly higher ISS and longer bedrest and more often presented with an active blush on computed tomography (CT) scans than patients with a low-grade BSI (grades I–III). Non-operative management was mainly the choice of treatment in both groups (76.6% and 79.5%, respectively). Haemodynamic instability was a predictor for operative management (OM) (p = 0.001). Predictors for a longer length of stay (LOS) included concomitant injuries, haemodynamic instability and OM (all p < 0.02). Interobserver agreement in the grading of BSI is moderate, with a Cohens Kappa coefficient of 0.493.

Conclusion

Non-operative management has proven to be a realistic management approach in both low- and high-grade splenic injuries. Consideration for operative management should be based on haemodynamic instability. Compared to the anticipated length of bedrest and hospital stay outlined in the APSA guidelines, the Netherlands can reduce the length of bedrest and hospital stay through their non-operative management.

Level of evidence

Therapeutic study, level III

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13017-021-00353-4.

How should we manage a delayed presentation of blunt splenic injury?

A delayed presentation of a blunt splenic injury can refer to either an initially missed injury that manifests later with symptoms or latent insignificant injury that then becomes clinically symptomatic. This is a small patient group and there is some controversy about how these injuries should be managed. We present a case of a patient with an initially missed blunt splenic injury who represented two weeks later with hemorrhage and pain. He was treated non-operatively but returned with persistent symptoms and eventually required a difficult splenectomy. Through this case, we raise the question of whether patients who present with rebleeding in a delayed fashion from an initially missed blunt splenic injury are best treated with surgery and a splenectomy.

[Epidemiological, clinical and therapeutic aspects of blunt abdominal trauma in patients undergoing surgery at the General Hospital of National Reference of N'Djamena, Chad: about 49 cases]

Introduction

Les traumatismes fermés de l’abdomen sont fréquents.

Méthodes

Il s’agissait d’une étude rétrospective sur 49 dossiers de patients opérés pour traumatisme fermé de l’abdomen en cinq ans à l’Hôpital General de Référence Nationale de N’Djaména au Tchad. Les paramètres épidémiologiques, cliniques et thérapeutiques étaient étudiés.

Résultats

C’étaient 42 hommes et 7 femmes d’âge moyen de 21,3 ans. Les étiologies étaient: les accidents de la voie publique dans 61,2% des cas; les écroulements de mur (14,3%); les agressions (8,2%). Les traumatismes fermés de l’abdomen étaient plus fréquents au mois d’Août (14,28%) et Octobre (16,32%). Le délai d’admission à l’hôpital était de 6 à 12h dans 43% des cas. Le moyen d’évacuation des blessés était une voiture privée dans 85,7% des cas. Cliniquement, l’état hémodynamique était souvent stable (55,1%). L’imagerie médicale était dominée par la radiographie directe de l’abdomen (57,1%). Les lésions les plus observées ont été celles du grêle seul (16,32%) ou associées à celle de la vessie (8,16%), et de la rate (2,04%). La laparotomie était négative dans 6,12% des cas. La morbidité (12,2%) était dominée par les abcès de paroi. Le taux de décès était de 6,1%.

Conclusion

Les accidents de la voie publique sont la première cause de traumatismes fermés de l’abdomen. Le délai diagnostic et thérapeutique est important. Des mesures de sécurité routière devraient prévenir les accidents.

Blunt splenic injury: are early adverse events related to trauma, nonoperative management, or surgery?

PURPOSE

We aimed to compare clinical outcomes and early adverse events of operative management (OM), nonoperative management (NOM), and NOM with splenic artery embolization (SAE) in blunt splenic injury (BSI) and identify the prognostic factors.

METHODS

Medical records of 136 consecutive patients with BSI admitted to a trauma center from 2005 to 2010 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients were separated into three groups: OM, NOM, and SAE. We focused on associated injuries and early adverse events. Multivariate analysis was performed on 23 prognostic factors to find predictors.

RESULTS

The total survival rate was 97.1%, with four deaths all occurred in the OM group. The spleen salvage rate was 91% in NOM and SAE. At least one adverse event was observed in 32.8%, 62%, and 96% of patients in NOM, SAE, and OM groups, respectively (P < 0.001). We found significantly more deaths, infectious complications, pleural drainage, acute renal failures, and pancreatitis in OM and more pseudocysts in SAE. Six prognostic factors were statistically significant for one or more adverse events: simplified acute physiology score 2 ≥25 for almost all adverse events, age ≥50 years for acute respiratory syndrome, limb fracture for secondary bleeding, thoracic injury for pleural drainage, and at least one associated injury for pseudocyst. Adverse events were not related to the type of BSI management.

CONCLUSION

Patients with BSI present worse outcome and more adverse events in OM, but this is related to the severity of injury. The main predictor of adverse events remains the severity of injury.

Post-traumatic liver and splenic pseudoaneurysms in children: Diagnosis, management, and follow-up screening using contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS)

BACKGROUND

Pseudoaneurysm (PA) formation following blunt and penetrating abdominal trauma is a recognized complication in solid organ injury, usually diagnosed by contrast-enhanced CT (CECT) imaging. Delayed rupture is a potentially life-threatening event, although its frequency is not known in pediatric trauma. Contrast enhanced ultrasound (CEUS) is a novel radiation-free alternative to CECT with the potential to identify PA.

METHODS

A retrospective review of consecutive cases of significant liver and splenic injuries admitted to single institution (tertiary and quaternary referrals) over more than a 12year period was performed. From 2011, CEUS was performed routinely postinjury (5-10days) using SonoVue™ as contrast. Initially, CECT and CEUS were performed in tandem to ensure accurate correlation.

RESULTS

From January 2002-December 2014, 101 (73M) children [median age was 14.2 (1.3-18)years] with liver and splenic injuries were admitted. Injuries included: liver [n=57, grade 3 (1-5)], splenic [n=35, grade 3 (1-5)], and combined liver/spleen [n=8, (1-4)]. Median Injury Severity Score (ISS) was 13 (2-72). The predominant mechanisms of injury were blunt trauma n=73 (72%) and penetrating trauma n=28 (28%). Seventeen children (17%) developed PA. Six children became symptomatic (35%), and five went on to have embolization [at 7 (3-11)days]. These were detected by CECT (n=4) and CEUS (n=2). Eleven children remained asymptomatic [detected by CECT (n=8) and CEUS (n=3) at median 5 (4-8)days]. One underwent embolization owing to evidence of interval bleeding. Sensitivity of CEUS at detection of PA was 83%, with specificity of 92% (PPV=71%, NPV=96%). There was no association between grade of injury and presence of PA in either liver or splenic trauma (P=0.4), nor was there an association between size of PA and symptoms (P=0.68). Children sustaining splenic PA were significantly younger than those with hepatic PA (P=0.03). Follow-up imaging confirmed resolution of PA in 16 cases. One child was lost to follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of PA is higher than previously reported in the pediatric literature (<5%). Postinjury imaging appears mandatory, and CEUS appears to be highly sensitive and specific for diagnosis and follow-up.

A rare case of splenic pseudoaneurysm in pediatric splenic blunt trauma patient: Review of diagnosis and management

•

Splenic pseudoaneurysms (SPA) are a rare but serious sequela of blunt splenic trauma.

•

Natural course and management of SPA are not well defined in children.

•

We report a case of splenic pseudoaneurysm in pediatric blunt trauma.

•

CTA showed underestimate of severity of SPA compared to direct catheter angiography.

•

We propose an algorithm of management for pediatric splenic trauma.

Introduction

Splenic pseudoaneurysms (SPA) are a rare but serious sequela of blunt traumatic injury to the spleen. Management of adult blunt splenic trauma is well-studied, however, in children, the management is much less well-defined.

Presentation of case

A 15 year-old male presented with severe abdominal pain of acute onset after sustaining injury to his left side while playing football. FAST was positive for free fluid in the abdomen. Initial abdomen CT demonstrated a grade III/IV left splenic laceration with moderate to large hemoperitoneum with no active extravasation or injury to the splenic vessels noted. A follow-up CT angiography of the abdomen demonstrated a splenic hypervascular structure suspicious for a small pseudoaneurysm. Splenic arteriogram which demonstrated multiple pseudoaneurysms arising from the second order splenic artery branches which was angioembolized and treated.

Discussion & conclusion

Questions still remain regarding the timing of repeat imaging for diagnosis of SPA following non-operative blunt splenic trauma, which patients should be imaged, and how to manage SPA upon diagnosis. More clinical study and basic science research is warranted to study the disease process of SPA in pediatric patient. We believe that our proposed management algorithm timely detect formation of delayed SPA formation and addresses the possible fatal disease course of pediatric SPA.

The investigation of posttraumatic pseudoaneurysms in patients treated with nonoperative management for blunt abdominal solid organ injuries

Background

Posttraumatic pseudoaneurysms (PAs) have been recognized as the cause of delayed hemorrhage complicated with nonoperative management (NOM), although the need for intervention in patients with small-sized PAs and the relationship between the occurrence of PAs and bed-rest has been also unclear.

Objectives

The purpose of this study was to investigate the clinical history of small-sized PAs (less than 10 mm in diameter) which occurred in abdominal solid organs, and to analyze the relationship between the occurrence of PAs and early mobilization from bed.

Methods

Sixty-two patients who were successfully managed with NOM were investigated. Mobilization within three days post-injury was defined as “early mobilization” and bed-rest lasting over three days was defined as “late mobilization.” A comparison of the clinical factors, including the duration of bed-rest between patients with and without PAs detected by follow-up CT was performed. Furthermore, a multiple logistic regression model analysis on the occurrence of PAs was performed.

Results

PAs were detected in 7 of the 62 patients. The One patient with PAs measuring larger than 10 mm received trans-arterial embolization, and the remaining six patients with PAs smaller than 10 mm were managed conservatively. Consequently, no delayed hemorrhage occurred, and the PAs spontaneously disappeared in all of the six patients managed without intervention. The multiple regression model analysis revealed that early mobilization was not a significant factor predicting new-onset PAs.

Conclusions

Small PAs can be expected to disappear spontaneously. Moreover, early mobilization is not a significant risk factor for the occurrence of PAs.

Results of non-operative management of splenic trauma and its complications in children

Introduction:

Non-operative management (NOM) of splenic trauma in children is currently the treatment of choice.

Purpose:

We report a series of 83 cases in order to compare our results with literature data.

Patients and Methods:

For this, we conducted a retrospective study of 13 years and collected 83 cases of children with splenic trauma contusion, managed at Lapeyronie Montpellier Hospital in Visceral Pediatric Surgery Department. The studied parameters were age, sex, circumstances, the blood pressure (BP), hematology, imaging, associated injuries, transfusion requirements, treatment, duration of hospital stay, physical activity restriction and evolution.

Results:

NOM was successful in 98.7% of cases. We noted 4 complications including 3 pseudo aneurysms (PSA) of splenic artery and 1 pseudocyst spleen with a good prognosis. There was no mortality in our series.

Conclusion:

NOM is the treatment of choice for splenic trauma in children with a success rate of over 90%. Complications are rare and are dominated by the PSA of splenic artery.

Splenocolonic fistula following non-operative management of splenic rupture

Non-operative management has become the preferred treatment for splenic trauma in the absence of haemodynamic instability. The reported complications of non-operative management of splenic trauma may include pseudoaneurysm formation, delayed splenic rupture and splenic abscess formation. Splenocolonic fistula is a finding that has only previously been described in association with Crohn’s disease, pancreatitis, malignancy and haematological disorders. We present the case of a 16-year-old male who suffered a blunt traumatic injury to the spleen, was haemodynamically stable and successfully managed non-operatively. He represented 1 month later following a single episode of per-rectum bleeding. A CT scan of his abdomen revealed a pseudoaneurysm within the spleen, a splenic abscess and a splenocolonic fistula. He proceeded to emergency laparotomy for splenectomy and colonic resection and had an uneventful recovery. The history of management of blunt traumatic splenic injury is discussed, along with the associated risks of operative and conservative management. Methods predicting the success of non-operative management are explored, along with their application and relevance to this particular case.

Re-evaluation of histological findings of nonparasitic splenic cysts

OBJECTIVE

The pathogenesis of nonparasitic splenic cysts (NPSCs) has not been clarified completely. The aim of this multinational and multicentre retrospective study was to further elucidate the origin of NPSCs.

METHODS

From 1980 to 2006, 50 children and adolescents were surgically treated for NPSC at six paediatric surgical centres in four European countries. The initial histology report of 35 NPSCs, 22 epidermoid cysts, 11 pseudocysts or post-traumatic cysts and two mesothelial cysts was available. Additional re-evaluation, including immunohistochemistry, to detect cytokeratin, carcino-embrionic antigen and mesothelioma antibody in the inner surface of the cysts was carried out. Special attention was given to the possibility of preceding trauma to the splenic area and whether it played a role in the genesis of NPSC.

RESULTS

The pathological re-evaluation showed 30 epidermoid cysts, four mesothelial cysts and one pseudocyst. Immunohistology revealed eight epidermoid and two mesothelial linings of the cysts in those 11 patients in whom pseudocyst was diagnosed originally. No pseudocyst was documented in those patients who had a history of previous blunt abdominal trauma but was not proved by ultrasound and computed tomography scan.

CONCLUSION

In contrast with the prevailing belief, it has been demonstrated that NPSCs are congenital in origin, and there is no clinically proven evidence that trauma does play a role in their genesis.

Traumatic pseudoaneurysms of the liver and spleen in children: is routine screening warranted?

BACKGROUND

Although blunt injury to the spleen and liver can lead to pseudoaneurysm formation, current surgical guidelines do not recommend follow-up imaging. Controversy exists regarding the clinical implications of these traumatic pseudoaneurysms as well as their management.

METHODS

Retrospective review of children treated nonoperatively for isolated blunt liver and spleen trauma between 1991 and 2008 was undertaken. Patient demographics, grade of injury, and follow-up Doppler ultrasound results were obtained.

RESULTS

Three hundred sixty-two children were identified. One hundred eighty-six of them had splenic injuries, and 10 (5.4%) developed pseudoaneurysms. They were associated with grade III (3/39 [8%]) and grade IV (7/41 [17%]) injuries. In 7 patients, the pseudoaneurysm thrombosed spontaneously. Angiographic embolization was required in 2 children, and one underwent emergency splenectomy for delayed hemorrhage. Of the 176 patients who had liver injuries, 3 (1.7%) developed pseudoaneurysms. All 3 were associated with grade IV injuries (3/11 [27%]). One child underwent early embolization, while 2 developed delayed hemorrhage requiring emergent treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

Pseudoaneurysm development after blunt abdominal trauma is associated with high-grade splenic and liver injuries. Routine screening of this group of patients before discharge from hospital may be warranted because of the potential risk of life-threatening hemorrhage.

The significance of pseudoaneurysms in the nonoperative management of pediatric blunt splenic trauma

PURPOSE

Nonoperative management is the standard of care for hemodynamically stable pediatric and adult blunt splenic injuries. In adults, most centers follow a well-defined protocol involving repeated imaging at 24 to 48 hours, with embolization of splenic pseudoaneurysms (SAPs). In children, the significance of radiologically detected SAP has yet to be clarified.

METHODS

A systematic review of the medical literature was conducted to analyze the outcomes of documented posttraumatic SAP in the pediatric population.

RESULTS

Sixteen articles, including 1 prospective study, 4 retrospective reviews, and 11 case reports were reviewed. Forty-five SAPs were reported. Ninety-six percent of children were reported as stable. Yet, 82% underwent splenectomy, splenorrhaphy, or embolization. The fear of delayed complications owing to SAP was often cited as the reason for intervention in otherwise stable children. Only one child with a documented pseudoaneurysm experienced a delayed splenic rupture while under observation. No deaths were reported.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no evidence to support or dispute the routine use of follow-up imaging and embolization of posttraumatic SAP in the pediatric population. At present, the decision to treat SAP in stable children is at the discretion of the treating physician. A prospective study is needed to clarify this issue.

[Thoracic and abdominal trauma in children]

Knowledge of the characteristics of thoraco-abdominal trauma in children is important to optimize the imaging work up while keeping radiation exposure to a minimum. Because of the plasticity of the pediatric rib cage, rib fractures are infrequent, and severe parenchymal injuries may be present in the absence of rib fracture. Mediastinal injuries are unusual. The increased mobility of solid intraabdominal organs combined with a weaker abdominal wall are specific to pediatric patients. First-line imaging typically includes chest radiograph and abdominal US with Doppler imaging. Contrast-material enhanced CT is used as a second-line technique, with delayed imaging in patients with urinary tract lesions. Dedicated pediatric acquisition protocols are mandatory. Follow-up is obtained mainly with US.