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Krasuska U, Wal A, Staszek P, Ciacka K, Gniazdowska A. Do Reactive Oxygen and Nitrogen Species Have a Similar Effect on Digestive Processes in Carnivorous Nepenthes Plants and Humans? BIOLOGY 2023; 12:1356. [PMID: 37887066 PMCID: PMC10604543 DOI: 10.3390/biology12101356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/16/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023]
Abstract
Carnivorous plants attract animals, trap and kill them, and absorb nutrients from the digested bodies. This unusual (for autotrophs) type of nutrient acquisition evolved through the conversion of photosynthetically active leaves into specialised organs commonly called traps. The genus Nepenthes (pitcher plants) consists of approximately 169 species belonging to the group of carnivorous plants. Pitcher plants are characterised by specialised passive traps filled with a digestive fluid. The digestion that occurs inside the traps of carnivorous plants depends on the activities of many enzymes. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) also participate in the digestive process, but their action is poorly recognised. ROS and RNS, named together as RONS, exhibit concentration-dependent bimodal functions (toxic or signalling). They act as antimicrobial agents, participate in protein modification, and are components of signal transduction cascades. In the human stomach, ROS are considered as the cause of different diseases. RNS have multifaceted functions in the gastrointestinal tract, with both positive and negative impacts on digestion. This review describes the documented and potential impacts of RONS on the digestion in pitcher plant traps, which may be considered as an external stomach.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Agnieszka Wal
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland; (U.K.); (P.S.); (K.C.); (A.G.)
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Wal A, Staszek P, Pakula B, Paradowska M, Krasuska U. ROS and RNS Alterations in the Digestive Fluid of Nepenthes × ventrata Trap at Different Developmental Stages. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 11:3304. [PMID: 36501343 PMCID: PMC9740137 DOI: 10.3390/plants11233304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 11/10/2022] [Accepted: 11/25/2022] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
The carnivorous pitcher plant, Nepenthes × ventrata (Hort. ex Fleming = N. ventricosa Blanco × N. alata Blanco), produces passive traps containing digestive fluid. Although reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the fluid were detected in some pitcher plants, the participation of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in the digestion process has not yet been examined. The aim of this work was to investigate the production of superoxide anion (O2•-), nitric oxide (NO) and peroxynitrite (ONOO-) levels in the digestive fluid of traps throughout organ development. We revealed the ROS and RNS occurrence in the digestive fluid, linked to the ROS-scavenging capacity and total phenolics content. In digestive fluid from the fed traps, NO emission was higher than in the fluid from the developed unfed pitcher. The concentration of nitrite (NO2-) decreased in the fluid from the fed traps in comparison to the unfed ones, pointing at NO2- as the key source of NO. The enhanced emission of NO was associated with lowered content of ONOO- in the fluid, probably due to lower production of O2•-. At the same time, despite a decline in total phenolics, the maximum ROS scavenging capacity was detected. In addition, ROS and RNS were noted even in closed traps, suggesting their involvement not only in digestion per se but also their action as signaling agents in trap ontogeny.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agnieszka Wal
- Department of Plant Physiology, Institute of Biology, Warsaw University of Life Sciences-SGGW, 02-776 Warsaw, Poland
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Nauheimer L, Weigner N, Joyce E, Crayn D, Clarke C, Nargar K. HybPhaser: A workflow for the detection and phasing of hybrids in target capture data sets. APPLICATIONS IN PLANT SCIENCES 2021; 9:APS311441. [PMID: 34336402 PMCID: PMC8312746 DOI: 10.1002/aps3.11441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Accepted: 04/28/2021] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
PREMISE Hybrids contain divergent alleles that can confound phylogenetic analyses but can provide insights into reticulated evolution when identified and phased. We developed a workflow to detect hybrids in target capture data sets and phase reads into parental lineages using a similarity and phylogenetic framework. METHODS We used Angiosperms353 target capture data for Nepenthes, including known hybrids to test the novel workflow. Reference mapping was used to assess heterozygous sites across the data set and to detect hybrid accessions and paralogous genes. Hybrid samples were phased by mapping reads to multiple references and sorting reads according to similarity. Phased accessions were included in the phylogenetic framework. RESULTS All known Nepenthes hybrids and nine additional samples had high levels of heterozygous sites, had reads associated with multiple divergent clades, and were phased into accessions resembling divergent haplotypes. Phylogenetic analysis including phased accessions increased clade support and confirmed parental lineages of hybrids. DISCUSSION HybPhaser provides a novel approach to detect and phase hybrids in target capture data sets, which can provide insights into reticulations by revealing origins of hybrids and reduce conflicting signal, leading to more robust phylogenetic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lars Nauheimer
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Centre for Tropical Bioinformatics and Molecular BiologyJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Centre for Tropical Environmental Sustainability ScienceJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
| | - Nicholas Weigner
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
| | - Elizabeth Joyce
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Centre for Tropical Environmental Sustainability ScienceJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
| | - Darren Crayn
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Centre for Tropical Bioinformatics and Molecular BiologyJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Centre for Tropical Environmental Sustainability ScienceJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
| | - Charles Clarke
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- Cairns Botanic GardensCollins AvenueEdge HillQueensland4870Australia
| | - Katharina Nargar
- Australian Tropical HerbariumJames Cook UniversityMcGregor RoadSmithfieldQueensland4878Australia
- National Research Collections AustraliaCommonwealth Industrial and Scientific Research Organisation (CSIRO)GPO Box 1700CanberraAustralian Capital Territory2601Australia
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Introgression is widespread in the radiation of carnivorous Nepenthes pitcher plants. Mol Phylogenet Evol 2021; 163:107214. [PMID: 34052438 DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2021.107214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2021] [Revised: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 05/25/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Introgression and hybridization are important processes in plant evolution, but they are difficult to study from a phylogenetic perspective, because they conflict with the bifurcating evolutionary history typically depicted in phylogenetic models. The role of hybridization in plant evolution is best documented in the form of allo-polyploidizations. In contrast, homoploid hybridization and introgression are less explored, although they may be crucial in adaptive radiations. Here we employ genome-wide data (ddRAD-seq, transcriptomes) to investigate the evolutionary history of Nepenthes, a radiation of c. 160 species of iconic carnivorous plants mainly from tropical Asia. Our data indicates that the main radiation is only c. 5 million years old, and confirms previous bifurcating phylogenies. However, due to a greatly expanded number of loci, we were able test for the first time the long-standing hypotheses of introgression and historical hybridization. The genus presents one very clear case of organellar capture between two distantly related but sympatric groups. Furthermore, all Nepenthes species show introgression signals in their nuclear genomes, as uncovered by a general survey of ABBA-BABA-like statistics. The ancestor of the rapid main radiation shows ancestry from two deeply diverged lineages, as indicated by phylogenetic network analyses. All major clades of the main radiation show further introgression both within and between each other, as suggested by admixture graphs. Our study supports the hypothesis that rapid adaptive radiations are hotspots of introgression in the tree of life, and highlights the need to consider non-treelike processes in evolutionary studies of Nepenthes in particular.
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Schwallier R, van Wely V, Baak M, Vos R, van Heuven BJ, Smets E, van Vugt RR, Gravendeel B. Ontogeny and Anatomy of the Dimorphic Pitchers of Nepenthes rafflesiana Jack. PLANTS 2020; 9:plants9111603. [PMID: 33218142 PMCID: PMC7698951 DOI: 10.3390/plants9111603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Revised: 11/10/2020] [Accepted: 11/13/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
An enigmatic feature of tropical pitcher plants belonging to the genus Nepenthes is their dimorphic prey-capturing pitfall traps. In many species, the conspicuously shaped upper and lower pitchers grow from a swollen leaf tendril tip until finally opening as insect-alluring devices. Few have studied the ontogeny of these traps from an anatomical and quantitative morphological perspective. We investigated whether the anatomy and development of lower and upper type pitchers of N. rafflesiana differ or overlap in terms of 3D geometric morphology and microstructure progression and presence. We hypothesized that there is an overlap in the initial, but not all, developmental stages of the two pitcher types and that one pitcher type is suspended in development. We identified four important morphological changes of pitcher ontogeny and defined these as curvation, elongation, inflation and maturation phases. Pitcher length indicated progress through developmental phases, and we propose to use it as a tool for indication of developmental stage. Microstructure development coincided with the developmental phases defined. Additionally, we discovered a new anatomical feature of extrafloral nectariferous peristomal glands between the inner peristome ridges of upper and lower pitchers being hollow and analyze the chemistry of the sugars on the outside of these glands. Ontogenetic shape analysis indicated that upper and lower pitcher types develop with similar phase progression but have no directly overlapping morphology. This means that upper pitchers are not a derived state from lower pitchers. Independent developmental programs evolved to produce distinctly shaped upper and lower pitchers in Nepenthes, likely to exploit different food sources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Schwallier
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +1-616-947-2942
| | - Valeri van Wely
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
| | - Mirna Baak
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Applied Sciences Leiden, Zernikedreef 11, 2333 CK Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Rutger Vos
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
- Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Bertie Joan van Heuven
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
| | - Erik Smets
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
- Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Rogier R. van Vugt
- Hortus Botanicus, Leiden University, Rapenburg 73, 2311 GJ Leiden, The Netherlands;
| | - Barbara Gravendeel
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, Darwinweg 2, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands; (V.v.W.); (R.V.); (B.J.v.H.); (E.S.); (B.G.)
- Institute Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
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Murphy B, Forest F, Barraclough T, Rosindell J, Bellot S, Cowan R, Golos M, Jebb M, Cheek M. A phylogenomic analysis of Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae). Mol Phylogenet Evol 2020; 144:106668. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ympev.2019.106668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 10/28/2019] [Accepted: 10/29/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Scharmann M, Grafe TU, Metali F, Widmer A. Sex is determined by XY chromosomes across the radiation of dioecious Nepenthes pitcher plants. Evol Lett 2019; 3:586-597. [PMID: 31867120 PMCID: PMC6906984 DOI: 10.1002/evl3.142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 08/23/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Species with separate sexes (dioecy) are a minority among flowering plants, but dioecy has evolved multiple times independently in their history. The sex-determination system and sex-linked genomic regions are currently identified in a limited number of dioecious plants only. Here, we study the sex-determination system in a genus of dioecious plants that lack heteromorphic sex chromosomes and are not amenable to controlled breeding: Nepenthes pitcher plants. We genotyped wild populations of flowering males and females of three Nepenthes taxa using ddRAD-seq and sequenced a male inflorescence transcriptome. We developed a statistical tool (privacy rarefaction) to distinguish true sex specificity from stochastic noise in read coverage of sequencing data from wild populations and identified male-specific loci and XY-patterned single nucleotide polymorphsims (SNPs) in all three Nepenthes taxa, suggesting the presence of homomorphic XY sex chromosomes. The male-specific region of the Y chromosome showed little conservation among the three taxa, except for the essential pollen development gene DYT1 that was confirmed as male specific by PCR in additional Nepenthes taxa. Hence, dioecy and part of the male-specific region of the Nepenthes Y-chromosomes likely have a single evolutionary origin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathias Scharmann
- Institute of Integrative BiologyETH ZurichZürich8092Switzerland
- Department of Ecology and EvolutionUniversity of LausanneLausanne1015Switzerland
| | - T. Ulmar Grafe
- Faculty of ScienceUniversiti Brunei DarussalamGadongBE 1410Brunei Darussalam
| | - Faizah Metali
- Faculty of ScienceUniversiti Brunei DarussalamGadongBE 1410Brunei Darussalam
| | - Alex Widmer
- Institute of Integrative BiologyETH ZurichZürich8092Switzerland
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Gruzdev EV, Kadnikov VV, Beletsky AV, Kochieva EZ, Mardanov AV, Skryabin KG, Ravin NV. Plastid Genomes of Carnivorous Plants Drosera rotundifolia and Nepenthes × ventrata Reveal Evolutionary Patterns Resembling Those Observed in Parasitic Plants. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E4107. [PMID: 31443555 PMCID: PMC6747624 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20174107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnivorous plants have the ability to capture and digest small animals as a source of additional nutrients, which allows them to grow in nutrient-poor habitats. Here we report the complete sequences of the plastid genomes of two carnivorous plants of the order Caryophyllales, Drosera rotundifolia and Nepenthes × ventrata. The plastome of D. rotundifolia is repeat-rich and highly rearranged. It lacks NAD(P)H dehydrogenase genes, as well as ycf1 and ycf2 genes, and three essential tRNA genes. Intron losses are observed in some protein-coding and tRNA genes along with a pronounced reduction of RNA editing sites. Only six editing sites were identified by RNA-seq in D. rotundifolia plastid genome and at most conserved editing sites the conserved amino acids are already encoded at the DNA level. In contrast, the N. × ventrata plastome has a typical structure and gene content, except for pseudogenization of the ccsA gene. N. × ventrata and D. rotundifolia could represent different stages of evolution of the plastid genomes of carnivorous plants, resembling events observed in parasitic plants in the course of the switch from autotrophy to a heterotrophic lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eugeny V Gruzdev
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Vitaly V Kadnikov
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexey V Beletsky
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena Z Kochieva
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Andrey V Mardanov
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Konstantin G Skryabin
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikolai V Ravin
- Institute of Bioengineering, Research Center of Biotechnology of the Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia.
- Lomonosov Moscow State University, 119991 Moscow, Russia.
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Bittleston LS, Wolock CJ, Yahya BE, Chan XY, Chan KG, Pierce NE, Pringle A. Convergence between the microcosms of Southeast Asian and North American pitcher plants. eLife 2018; 7:36741. [PMID: 30152327 PMCID: PMC6130972 DOI: 10.7554/elife.36741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
The ‘pitchers’ of carnivorous pitcher plants are exquisite examples of convergent evolution. An open question is whether the living communities housed in pitchers also converge in structure or function. Using samples from more than 330 field-collected pitchers of eight species of Southeast Asian Nepenthes and six species of North American Sarracenia, we demonstrate that the pitcher microcosms, or miniature ecosystems with complex communities, are strikingly similar. Compared to communities from surrounding habitats, pitcher communities house fewer species. While communities associated with the two genera contain different microbial organisms and arthropods, the species are predominantly from the same phylogenetic clades. Microbiomes from both genera are enriched in degradation pathways and have high abundances of key degradation enzymes. Moreover, in a manipulative field experiment, Nepenthes pitchers placed in a North American bog assembled Sarracenia-like communities. An understanding of the convergent interactions in pitcher microcosms facilitates identification of selective pressures shaping the communities. The ecosystems found across the Earth, including in forests, lakes and prairies, consist of communities of plants, animals and microbes. How these organisms interact with each other determines which ones grow and thrive. We still do not understand how communities form: why different species exist where they do, and what enables them to survive in different locations. This knowledge is particularly limited with regard to communities of microbes because they are hard to see and count. Pitcher plants are an ideal system for studying how communities and ecosystems assemble. The pitcher-shaped leaves of these plants each contain small aquatic communities of microbes and arthropods (including insects and mites) that can be relatively easily studied. Because unrelated groups of plants have evolved pitchers at different times and on different continents, these communities can also be used to explore how evolutionary history and the current environment determine which species thrive in a particular location. Bittleston et al. sampled the DNA of the communities living within 330 pitchers from various North American and Southeast Asian pitcher plant species. This revealed that very distantly related plants on opposite sides of the planet have pitchers that host similar communities, with the organisms found in one pitcher plant often closely related to the organisms found in others. The genes within the community’s DNA also shared many functions, with the majority of shared genes devoted to digesting captured insect prey. Bittleston et al. also relocated pitcher plants from Southeast Asia to grow alongside North American species and found the same microbes and arthropods colonizing both groups, indicating that the different types of pitchers present a similar habitat. Overall, the results of the experiments performed by Bittleston et al. suggest that certain kinds of interactions between species (such as between the pitcher plants and their microbes) can evolve independently in different parts of the world. Researchers can use these interactions to learn more about how communities and ecosystems form. With a greater understanding of the Earth’s ecosystems, it will be easier to protect them and predict how they will fare as global conditions change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leonora S Bittleston
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Charles J Wolock
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Bakhtiar E Yahya
- Institute for Tropical Biology and Conservation, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Malaysia
| | - Xin Yue Chan
- Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Kok Gan Chan
- Division of Genetics and Molecular Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.,International Genome Centre, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, China
| | - Naomi E Pierce
- Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States.,Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University, Cambridge, United States
| | - Anne Pringle
- Departments of Botany and Bacteriology, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Wisconsin, United States
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Thorogood CJ, Bauer U, Hiscock SJ. Convergent and divergent evolution in carnivorous pitcher plant traps. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2018; 217:1035-1041. [PMID: 29131340 DOI: 10.1111/nph.14879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 10/05/2017] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
Contents Summary 1035 I. Introduction 1035 II. Evolution of the pitcher 1036 III. Convergent evolution 1036 IV. Divergent evolution 1038 V. Adaptive radiation and speciation 1040 VI. Conclusions and perspectives 1040 Acknowledgements 1040 References 1040 SUMMARY: The pitcher trap is a striking example of convergent evolution across unrelated carnivorous plant lineages. Convergent traits that have evolved across pitcher plant lineages are essential for trap function, suggesting that key selective pressures are in action. Recent studies have also revealed patterns of divergent evolution in functional pitcher morphology within genera. Adaptations to differences in local prey assemblages may drive such divergence and, ultimately, speciation. Here, we review recent research on convergent and divergent evolution in pitcher plant traps, with a focus on the genus Nepenthes, which we propose as a new model for research into adaptive radiation and speciation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chris J Thorogood
- Botanic Garden, University of Oxford, Rose Lane, Oxford, OX1 4AZ, UK
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK
| | - Ulrike Bauer
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Bristol, 24 Tyndall Avenue, Bristol, BS8 1TQ, UK
| | - Simon J Hiscock
- Botanic Garden, University of Oxford, Rose Lane, Oxford, OX1 4AZ, UK
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3RB, UK
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11
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Gilbert KJ, Nitta JH, Talavera G, Pierce NE. Keeping an eye on coloration: ecological correlates of the evolution of pitcher traits in the genus Nepenthes (Caryophyllales). Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2018. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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12
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Schöner MG, Schöner CR, Kerth G, Suhaini SNBP, Grafe TU. Handle with care: enlarged pads improve the ability of Hardwicke’s woolly bat, Kerivoula hardwickii (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae), to roost in a carnivorous pitcher plant. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2017. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blx098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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13
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Schwallier R, Gravendeel B, de Boer H, Nylinder S, van Heuven BJ, Sieder A, Sumail S, van Vugt R, Lens F. Evolution of wood anatomical characters in Nepenthes and close relatives of Caryophyllales. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2017; 119:1179-1193. [PMID: 28387789 PMCID: PMC5604564 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcx010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Nepenthes attracts wide attention with its spectacularly shaped carnivorous pitchers, cultural value and horticultural curiosity. Despite the plant's iconic fascination, surprisingly little anatomical detail is known about the genus beyond its modified leaf tip traps. Here, the wood anatomical diversity of Nepenthes is explored. This diversity is further assessed with a phylogenetic framework to investigate whether the wood characters within the genus are relevant from an evolutionary or ecological perspective, or rather depend on differences in developmental stages, growth habits, substrates or precipitation. METHODS Observations were performed using light microscopy and scanning electron microscopy. Ancestral states of selected wood and pith characters were reconstructed using an existing molecular phylogeny for Nepenthes and a broader Caryophyllales framework. Pairwise comparisons were assessed for possible relationships between wood anatomy and developmental stages, growth habits, substrates and ecology. KEY RESULTS Wood anatomy of Nepenthes is diffuse porous, with mainly solitary vessels showing simple, bordered perforation plates and alternate intervessel pits, fibres with distinctly bordered pits (occasionally septate), apotracheal axial parenchyma and co-occurring uni- and multiseriate rays often including silica bodies. Precipitation and growth habit (stem length) are linked with vessel density and multiseriate ray height, while soil type correlates with vessel diameter, vessel element length and maximum ray width. For Caryophyllales as a whole, silica grains, successive cambia and bordered perforation plates are the result of convergent evolution. Peculiar helical sculpturing patterns within various cell types occur uniquely within the insectivorous clade of non-core Caryophyllales. CONCLUSIONS The wood anatomical variation in Nepenthes displays variation for some characters dependent on soil type, precipitation and stem length, but is largely conservative. The helical-banded fibre-sclereids that mainly occur idioblastically in pith and cortex are synapomorphic for Nepenthes , while other typical Nepenthes characters evolved convergently in different Caryophyllales lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Schwallier
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, PO Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Grand Valley State University, 1 Campus Drive, Allendale, MI 49401, USA
| | - Barbara Gravendeel
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, PO Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 CC Leiden, The Netherlands
- University of Applied Sciences Leiden, Zernikedreef 11, 2300 AJ Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Hugo de Boer
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, PO Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
- Uppsala University, Norbyvägen 18D, 75236 Uppsala, Sweden
- The Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, PO Box 1172, 0318 Oslo, Norway
| | - Stephan Nylinder
- Swedish Museum of Natural History, Frescativägen 40, 114 18 Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Anton Sieder
- University of Vienna, Universitätsring 1, 1010 Wien, Austria
| | - Sukaibin Sumail
- Sabah Park Herbarium, PO Box 6, Kinabalu Park, Kundasang, Ranau, Sabah, Malaysia
| | - Rogier van Vugt
- Hortus Botanicus of Leiden University, Rapenburg 73, 2311 GJ Leiden, The Netherlands
| | - Frederic Lens
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, PO Box 9517, 2300 RA Leiden, The Netherlands
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Bunawan H, Yen CC, Yaakop S, Noor NM. Phylogenetic inferences of Nepenthes species in Peninsular Malaysia revealed by chloroplast (trnL intron) and nuclear (ITS) DNA sequences. BMC Res Notes 2017; 10:67. [PMID: 28126013 PMCID: PMC5270352 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-017-2379-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The chloroplastic trnL intron and the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region were sequenced for 11 Nepenthes species recorded in Peninsular Malaysia to examine their phylogenetic relationship and to evaluate the usage of trnL intron and ITS sequences for phylogenetic reconstruction of this genus. Results Phylogeny reconstruction was carried out using neighbor-joining, maximum parsimony and Bayesian analyses. All the trees revealed two major clusters, a lowland group consisting of N. ampullaria, N. mirabilis, N. gracilis and N. rafflesiana, and another containing both intermediately distributed species (N. albomarginata and N. benstonei) and four highland species (N. sanguinea, N. macfarlanei, N. ramispina and N. alba). Conclusions The trnL intron and ITS sequences proved to provide phylogenetic informative characters for deriving a phylogeny of Nepenthes species in Peninsular Malaysia. To our knowledge, this is the first molecular phylogenetic study of Nepenthes species occurring along an altitudinal gradient in Peninsular Malaysia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hamidun Bunawan
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Choong Chee Yen
- School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Salmah Yaakop
- School of Environmental and Natural Resource Sciences, Faculty of Science and Technology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Normah Mohd Noor
- Institute of Systems Biology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia (UKM), 43600, Bangi, Selangor, Malaysia.
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Schwallier R, Raes N, de Boer HJ, Vos RA, van Vugt RR, Gravendeel B. Phylogenetic analysis of niche divergence reveals distinct evolutionary histories and climate change implications for tropical carnivorous pitcher plants. DIVERS DISTRIB 2015. [DOI: 10.1111/ddi.12382] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Schwallier
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Darwinweg 2 2333 CR Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Niels Raes
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Darwinweg 2 2333 CR Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Hugo J. de Boer
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Darwinweg 2 2333 CR Leiden The Netherlands
- Uppsala University; Norbyvägen 18D SE 75236 Uppsala Sweden
- The Natural History Museum; University of Oslo; P.O. Box 1172 NO-0318 Oslo Norway
| | - Rutger A. Vos
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Darwinweg 2 2333 CR Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Rogier R. van Vugt
- Hortus Botanicus of Leiden University; Rapenburg 73 2311 GJ Leiden The Netherlands
| | - Barbara Gravendeel
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center; Darwinweg 2 2333 CR Leiden The Netherlands
- University of Applied Sciences Leiden; Zernikedreef 11 2333 CK Leiden The Netherlands
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Moran JA, Gray LK, Clarke C, Chin L. Capture mechanism in Palaeotropical pitcher plants (Nepenthaceae) is constrained by climate. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2013; 112:1279-91. [PMID: 23975653 PMCID: PMC3806527 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mct195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2013] [Accepted: 07/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Nepenthes (Nepenthaceae, approx. 120 species) are carnivorous pitcher plants with a centre of diversity comprising the Philippines, Borneo, Sumatra and Sulawesi. Nepenthes pitchers use three main mechanisms for capturing prey: epicuticular waxes inside the pitcher; a wettable peristome (a collar-shaped structure around the opening); and viscoelastic fluid. Previous studies have provided evidence suggesting that the first mechanism may be more suited to seasonal climates, whereas the latter two might be more suited to perhumid environments. In this study, this idea was tested using climate envelope modelling. METHODS A total of 94 species, comprising 1978 populations, were grouped by prey capture mechanism (large peristome, small peristome, waxy, waxless, viscoelastic, non-viscoelastic, 'wet' syndrome and 'dry' syndrome). Nineteen bioclimatic variables were used to model habitat suitability at approx. 1 km resolution for each group, using Maxent, a presence-only species distribution modelling program. KEY RESULTS Prey capture groups putatively associated with perhumid conditions (large peristome, waxless, viscoelastic and 'wet' syndrome) had more restricted areas of probable habitat suitability than those associated putatively with less humid conditions (small peristome, waxy, non-viscoelastic and'dry' syndrome). Overall, the viscoelastic group showed the most restricted area of modelled suitable habitat. CONCLUSIONS The current study is the first to demonstrate that the prey capture mechanism in a carnivorous plant is constrained by climate. Nepenthes species employing peristome-based and viscoelastic fluid-based capture are largely restricted to perhumid regions; in contrast, the wax-based mechanism allows successful capture in both perhumid and more seasonal areas. Possible reasons for the maintenance of peristome-based and viscoelastic fluid-based capture mechanisms in Nepenthes are discussed in relation to the costs and benefits associated with a given prey capture strategy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A. Moran
- School of Environment and Sustainability, Royal Roads University, Victoria, British Columbia, V9B 5Y2 Canada
| | - Laura K. Gray
- Department of Renewable Resources, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, T6G 2H1 Canada
| | - Charles Clarke
- School of Science, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, 46150 Malaysia
| | - Lijin Chin
- School of Science, Monash University, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, 46150 Malaysia
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Bhore SJ, Komathi V, Kandasamy KI. Diversity of endophytic bacteria in medicinally important Nepenthes species. J Nat Sci Biol Med 2013; 4:431-4. [PMID: 24082746 PMCID: PMC3783794 DOI: 10.4103/0976-9668.117022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Nepenthes species are used in traditional medicines to treat various health ailments. However, we do not know which types of endophytic bacteria (EB) are associated with Nepenthes spp. OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to isolate and to identify EB associated with Nepenthes spp. MATERIALS AND METHODS Surface-sterilized leaf and stem tissues from nine Nepenthes spp. collected from Peninsular Malaysia were used to isolate EB. Isolates were identified using the polymerase chain reaction-amplified 16S ribosomal DNA (rDNA) sequence similarity based method. RESULTS Cultivable, 96 isolates were analyzed; and the 16S rDNA sequences analysis suggest that diverse bacterial species are associated with Nepenthes spp. Majority (55.2%) of the isolates were from Bacillus genus, and Bacillus cereus was the most dominant (14.6%) among isolates. CONCLUSION Nepenthes spp. do harbor a wide array of cultivable endophytic bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Subhash J Bhore
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Applied Sciences, AIMST University, Bedong-Semeling Road, Semeling, Kedah, Malaysia
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BAUER U, CLEMENTE CJ, RENNER T, FEDERLE W. Form follows function: morphological diversification and alternative trapping strategies in carnivorous Nepenthes pitcher plants. J Evol Biol 2011; 25:90-102. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1420-9101.2011.02406.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Mithöfer A. Carnivorous pitcher plants: insights in an old topic. PHYTOCHEMISTRY 2011; 72:1678-1682. [PMID: 21185041 DOI: 10.1016/j.phytochem.2010.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2010] [Revised: 11/22/2010] [Accepted: 11/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Plant insect interactions are usually recognized as a scenario where herbivorous insects feed on a host plant. However, also the opposite situation is known, where plants feed on insects. Carnivorous pitcher plants of the genus Nepenthes as well as other pitcher plants obtain many nutrients from caught insect prey. Special features of the pitcher traps' surface are responsible for attraction and trapping insects. Once caught, the prey is digested in the fluid of the pitchers to release nutrients and make them available for the plant. Nutrients are taken up by special glands localized on the inner surface of the pitchers. These glands also secrete the hydrolyzing enzymes into the digestion fluid. Although this is known for more than 100 years, our knowledge of the pitcher fluid composition is still limited. Only in recent years some enzymes have been purified from the pitcher fluid and their corresponding genes could be identified. Among them, many pathogenesis-related proteins have been identified, most of which exhibiting hydrolytic activities. The role of these proteins as well as the role of secondary metabolites, which have been identified in the pitcher fluid, is discussed in general and in the context of further studies on carnivorous plants that might give answers to basic questions in plant biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Mithöfer
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Hans-Knöll-Str. 8, 07745 Jena, Germany.
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Bonhomme V, Pelloux-Prayer H, Jousselin E, Forterre Y, Labat JJ, Gaume L. Slippery or sticky? Functional diversity in the trapping strategy of Nepenthes carnivorous plants. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2011; 191:545-554. [PMID: 21434933 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2011.03696.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
The pitcher-shaped leaves of Nepenthes carnivorous plants have been considered as pitfall traps that essentially rely on slippery surfaces to capture insects. But a recent study of Nepenthes rafflesiana has shown that the viscoelasticity of the digestive fluid inside the pitchers plays a key role. Here, we investigated whether Nepenthes species exhibit diverse trapping strategies. We measured the amount of slippery wax on the pitcher walls of 23 taxa and the viscoelasticity of their digestive liquid and compared their retention efficiency on ants and flies. The amount of wax was shown to vary greatly between species. Most mountain species exhibited viscoelastic digestive fluids while water-like fluids were predominant in lowland species. Both characteristics contributed to insect trapping but wax was more efficient at trapping ants while viscoelasticity was key in trapping insects and was even more efficient than wax on flies. Trap waxiness and fluid viscoelasticity were inversely related, suggesting the possibility of an investment trade-off for the plants. Therefore Nepenthes pitcher plants do not solely employ slippery devices to trap insects but often employ a viscoelastic strategy. The entomofauna specific to the plant's habitat may exert selective pressures, favouring one trapping strategy at the expense of the other.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincent Bonhomme
- Université Montpellier II, CNRS, UMR AMAP: botAnique et bioinforMatique de l'Architecture des Plantes, CIRAD - TA A51/PS2 Boulevard de la Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Hervé Pelloux-Prayer
- Université Montpellier II, CNRS, UMR AMAP: botAnique et bioinforMatique de l'Architecture des Plantes, CIRAD - TA A51/PS2 Boulevard de la Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
| | - Emmanuelle Jousselin
- INRA, UMR CBGP, Campus International de Baillarguet, CS 30016, 34988 Montferrier-sur-Lez, France
| | - Yoël Forterre
- CNRS, Université de Provence IUSTI, Technopole Château-Gombert, 13000 Marseille, France
| | - Jean-Jacques Labat
- Pépinière Nature et Paysages et Jardin Botanique de Plantes Carnivores, Peyrusse-Massas, France
| | - Laurence Gaume
- Université Montpellier II, CNRS, UMR AMAP: botAnique et bioinforMatique de l'Architecture des Plantes, CIRAD - TA A51/PS2 Boulevard de la Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France
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Chin L, Moran JA, Clarke C. Trap geometry in three giant montane pitcher plant species from Borneo is a function of tree shrew body size. THE NEW PHYTOLOGIST 2010; 186:461-70. [PMID: 20100203 DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-8137.2009.03166.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
*Three Bornean pitcher plant species, Nepenthes lowii, N. rajah and N. macrophylla, produce modified pitchers that 'capture' tree shrew faeces for nutritional benefit. Tree shrews (Tupaia montana) feed on exudates produced by glands on the inner surfaces of the pitcher lids and defecate into the pitchers. *Here, we tested the hypothesis that pitcher geometry in these species is related to tree shrew body size by comparing the pitcher characteristics with those of five other 'typical' (arthropod-trapping) Nepenthes species. *We found that only pitchers with large orifices and lids that are concave, elongated and oriented approximately at right angles to the orifice capture faeces. The distance from the tree shrews' food source (that is, the lid nectar glands) to the front of the pitcher orifice precisely matches the head plus body length of T. montana in the faeces-trapping species, and is a function of orifice size and the angle of lid reflexion. *Substantial changes to nutrient acquisition strategies in carnivorous plants may occur through simple modifications to trap geometry. This extraordinary plant-animal interaction adds to a growing body of evidence that Nepenthes represents a candidate model for adaptive radiation with regard to nitrogen sequestration strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lijin Chin
- School of Science, Monash University Sunway Campus, Jalan Lagoon Selatan, 46150 Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
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Gaume L, Di Giusto B. Adaptive significance and ontogenetic variability of the waxy zone in Nepenthes rafflesiana. ANNALS OF BOTANY 2009; 104:1281-91. [PMID: 19805403 PMCID: PMC2778386 DOI: 10.1093/aob/mcp238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2009] [Revised: 06/05/2009] [Accepted: 08/11/2009] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS The slippery waxy zone in the upper part of pitchers has long been considered the key trapping structure of the Nepenthes carnivorous plants; however, the presence of wax is reported to be variable within and between species of this species-rich genus. This study raises the question of the adaptive significance of the waxy zone and investigates the basis for an ontogenetic cause of its variability and correlation with pitcher shape. METHODS In Brunei (Borneo) the expression of the waxy zone throughout plant ontogeny was studied in two taxa of the Nepenthes rafflesiana complex, typica and elongata, which differ in pitcher shape and size. We also tested the adaptive significance of this zone by comparing the trapping efficiency and the number of prey captured of wax-bearing and wax-lacking plants. KEY RESULTS In elongata, the waxy zone is always well expanded and the elongated pitchers change little in form during plant development. Wax efficiently traps experimental ants but the number of captured prey in pitchers is low. In contrast, in typica, the waxy zone is reduced in successively produced pitchers until it is lost at the end of the plant's juvenile stage. The form of pitchers thus changes continuously throughout plant ontogeny, from elongated to ovoid. In typica, the number of captured prey is greater, but the role of wax in trapping is minor compared with that of the digestive liquid, and waxy plants do not show a higher insect retention and prey abundance as compared with non-waxy plants. CONCLUSIONS The waxy zone is not always a key trapping structure in Nepenthes and can be lost when supplanted by more efficient features. This study points out how pitcher structure is submitted to selection, and that evolutionary changes in developmental mechanisms could play a role in the morphological diversity of Nepenthes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurence Gaume
- UMR CNRS 5120 AMAP: botAnique et bioinforMatique de l'Architecture des Plantes, CIRAD-TA A51/PS2 Boulevard de la Lironde, F-34398 Montpellier cedex 5, France.
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Ellison AM, Gotelli NJ. Energetics and the evolution of carnivorous plants--Darwin's 'most wonderful plants in the world'. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL BOTANY 2009; 60:19-42. [PMID: 19213724 DOI: 10.1093/jxb/ern179] [Citation(s) in RCA: 144] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/09/2023]
Abstract
Carnivory has evolved independently at least six times in five angiosperm orders. In spite of these independent origins, there is a remarkable morphological convergence of carnivorous plant traps and physiological convergence of mechanisms for digesting and assimilating prey. These convergent traits have made carnivorous plants model systems for addressing questions in plant molecular genetics, physiology, and evolutionary ecology. New data show that carnivorous plant genera with morphologically complex traps have higher relative rates of gene substitutions than do those with simple sticky traps. This observation suggests two alternative mechanisms for the evolution and diversification of carnivorous plant lineages. The 'energetics hypothesis' posits rapid morphological evolution resulting from a few changes in regulatory genes responsible for meeting the high energetic demands of active traps. The 'predictable prey capture hypothesis' further posits that complex traps yield more predictable and frequent prey captures. To evaluate these hypotheses, available data on the tempo and mode of carnivorous plant evolution were reviewed; patterns of prey capture by carnivorous plants were analysed; and the energetic costs and benefits of botanical carnivory were re-evaluated. Collectively, the data are more supportive of the energetics hypothesis than the predictable prey capture hypothesis. The energetics hypothesis is consistent with a phenomenological cost-benefit model for the evolution of botanical carnivory, and also accounts for data suggesting that carnivorous plants have leaf construction costs and scaling relationships among leaf traits that are substantially different from those of non-carnivorous plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron M Ellison
- Harvard Forest, Harvard University, 324 North Main Street, Petersham, MA 01366, USA.
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Porembski S, Barthlott W. Advances in carnivorous plants research. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2006; 8:737-9. [PMID: 17203428 DOI: 10.1055/s-2006-924669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
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