Optical fiber-based single-shot picosecond transient absorption spectroscopy

Sub-picosecond Production of Solute Radical Cations in Tetrahydrofuran after Radiolysis

Ultrafast hole transfer from solvent radical cations produced by radiolysis with ∼10 ps, 9 MeV electron pulses to solutes in tetrahydrofuran (THF) was investigated. Because of rapid fragmentation of initially produced THF^+•, solute radical cations are not expected and have not previously been reported. When 9,9-dihexyl-2,7-dibromofluorene (Br₂F) at 5 to 1000 mM was used, Br₂F^+• with radiation chemical yields up to G = 2.23/100 eV absorbed was observed. While more than half of this was the result of direct solute ionization, the results highlight the importance of capturing holes from THF^+• prior to solvation and fragmentation. The observed data show a time-resolution limited (15 ps) rise in transient absorption of Br₂F^+•, identical in form to reports of presolvated or dry electron capture in water and a few organic liquids, including THF. The results were thus interpreted with a similar formalism, finding C₃₇ = 1.7 M, the concentration at which 37% of holes escape capture. The yield of solvent hole capture can be accounted for by the formation of solvent holes adjacent to solute molecules reacting faster than they can fragment; however, mechanisms such as delocalized holes or rapid hopping may play a role. Low temperature results find over two times more capture, supporting the speculation that if THF^+• was longer lived, the yield of capture in under 15 ps would have been at least 2 times larger at 1 M Br₂F, possibly capturing nearly all available holes from the solvent.

Design and performance of high-temperature furnace and cell holder for in situ spectroscopic, electrochemical, and radiolytic investigations of molten salts

To facilitate the development of molten salt reactor technologies, a fundamental understanding of the physical and chemical properties of molten salts under the combined conditions of high temperature and intense radiation fields is necessary. Optical spectroscopic (UV-Vis-near IR) and electrochemical techniques are powerful analytical tools to probe molecular structure, speciation, thermodynamics, and kinetics of solution dynamics. Here, we report the design and fabrication of three custom-made apparatus: (i) a multi-port spectroelectrochemical furnace equipped with optical spectroscopic and electrochemical instrumentation, (ii) a high-temperature cell holder for time-resolved optical detection of radiolytic transients in molten salts, and (iii) a miniaturized spectroscopy furnace for the investigation of steady-state electron beam effects on molten salt speciation and composition by optical spectroscopy. Initial results obtained with the spectroelectrochemical furnace (i) and high-temperature cell holder (ii) are reported.

Development of nanosecond time-resolved infrared detection at the LEAF pulse radiolysis facility

When coupled with transient absorption spectroscopy, pulse radiolysis, which utilizes high-energy electron pulses from an accelerator, is a powerful tool for investigating the kinetics and thermodynamics of a wide range of radiation-induced redox and electron transfer processes. The majority of these investigations detect transient species in the UV, visible, or near-IR spectral regions. Unfortunately, the often-broad and featureless absorption bands in these regions can make the definitive identification of intermediates difficult. Time-resolved vibrational spectroscopy would offer much improved structural characterization, but has received only limited application in pulse radiolysis. In this paper, we describe in detail the development of a unique nanosecond time-resolved infrared (TRIR) detection capability for condensed-phase pulse radiolysis on a new beam line at the LEAF facility of Brookhaven National Laboratory. The system makes use of a suite of high-power, continuous wave external-cavity quantum cascade lasers as the IR probe source, with coverage from 2330 to 1051 cm(-1). The response time of the TRIR detection setup is ∼40 ns, with a typical sensitivity of ∼100 μOD after 4-8 signal averages using a dual-beam probe/reference normalization detection scheme. This new detection method has enabled mechanistic investigations of a range of radiation-induced chemical processes, some of which are highlighted here.

Dual echelon femtosecond single-shot spectroscopy

We have developed a femtosecond single-shot spectroscopic technique to measure irreversible changes in condensed phase materials in real time. Crossed echelons generate a two-dimensional array of time-delayed pulses with one femtosecond probe pulse. This yields 9 ps of time-resolved data from a single laser shot, filling a gap in currently employed measurement methods. We can now monitor ultrafast irreversible dynamics in solid-state materials or other samples that cannot be flowed or replenished between laser shots, circumventing limitations of conventional pump-probe methods due to sample damage or product buildup. Despite the absence of signal-averaging in the single-shot measurement, an acceptable signal-to-noise level has been achieved via background and reference calibration procedures. Pump-induced changes in relative reflectivity as small as 0.2%-0.5% are demonstrated in semimetals, with both electronic and coherent phonon dynamics revealed by the data. The optical arrangement and the space-to-time conversion and calibration procedures necessary to achieve this level of operation are described. Sources of noise and approaches for dealing with them are discussed.

Development of double-decker pulse radiolysis

Double-decker pulse radiolysis (DDPR), which utilizes double-decker electron beams, was investigated to develop a new pulse radiolysis with a high time resolution. The double-decker electron beams were generated by injecting two UV pulses into a photocathode radio-frequency gun. In the pulse radiolysis, one electron beam was used as a pump beam, and the other was converted to a probe pulse. Finally, as its first application, the DDPR was successfully used for observing solvated electrons in water, with a 10%-90% rise time of 8.6 ps.

Negative polaron and triplet exciton diffusion in organometallic "molecular wires"

The dynamics of negative polaron and triplet exciton transport within a series of monodisperse platinum (Pt) acetylide oligomers is reported. The oligomers consist of Pt-acetylide repeats, [PtL(2)-C≡C-Ph-C≡C-](n) (where L = PBu(3) and Ph = 1,4-phenylene, n = 2, 3, 6, and 10), capped with naphthalene diimide (NDI) end groups. The Pt-acetylide segments are electro- and photoactive, and they serve as conduits for transport of electrons (negative polaron) and triplet excitons. The NDI end groups are relatively strong acceptors, serving as traps for the carriers. Negative polaron transport is studied by using pulse radiolysis/transient absorption at the Brookhaven National Laboratory Laser-Electron Accelerator Facility (LEAF). Electrons are rapidly attached to the oligomers, with some fraction initially residing upon the Pt-acetylide chains. The dynamics of transport are resolved by monitoring the spectral changes associated with transfer of electrons from the chain to the NDI end group. Triplet exciton transport is studied by femtosecond-picosecond transient absorption spectroscopy. Near-UV excitation leads to rapid production of triplet excitons localized on the Pt-acetylide chains. The excitons transport to the chain ends, where they are annihilated by charge separation with the NDI end group. The dynamics of triplet transport are resolved by transient absorption spectroscopy, taking advantage of the changes in spectra associated with decay of the triplet exciton and rise of the charge-separated state. The results indicate that negative polarons and excitons are transported rapidly, on average moving distances of ~3 nm in less than 200 ps. Analysis of the dynamics suggests diffusive transport by a site-to-site hopping mechanism with hopping times of ~27 ps for triplets and <10 ps for electrons.

Application of external-cavity quantum cascade infrared lasers to nanosecond time-resolved infrared spectroscopy of condensed-phase samples following pulse radiolysis

Pulse radiolysis, utilizing short pulses of high-energy electrons from accelerators, is a powerful method for rapidly generating reduced or oxidized species and other free radicals in solution. Combined with fast time-resolved spectroscopic detection (typically in the ultraviolet/visible/near-infrared), it is invaluable for monitoring the reactivity of species subjected to radiolysis on timescales ranging from picoseconds to seconds. However, it is often difficult to identify the transient intermediates definitively due to a lack of structural information in the spectral bands. Time-resolved vibrational spectroscopy offers the structural specificity necessary for mechanistic investigations but has received only limited application in pulse radiolysis experiments. For example, time-resolved infrared (TRIR) spectroscopy has only been applied to a handful of gas-phase studies, limited mainly by several technical challenges. We have exploited recent developments in commercial external-cavity quantum cascade laser (EC-QCL) technology to construct a nanosecond TRIR apparatus that has allowed, for the first time, TRIR spectra to be recorded following pulse radiolysis of condensed-phase samples. Near single-shot sensitivity of DeltaOD <1 x 10(-3) has been achieved, with a response time of <20 ns. Using two continuous-wave EC-QCLs, the current apparatus covers a probe region from 1890-2084 cm(-1), and TRIR spectra are acquired on a point-by-point basis by recording transient absorption decay traces at specific IR wavelengths and combining these to generate spectral time slices. The utility of the apparatus has been demonstrated by monitoring the formation and decay of the one-electron reduced form of the CO(2) reduction catalyst, [Re(I)(bpy)(CO)(3)(CH(3)CN)](+), in acetonitrile with nanosecond time resolution following pulse radiolysis. Characteristic red-shifting of the nu(CO) IR bands confirmed that one-electron reduction of the complex took place. The availability of TRIR detection with high sensitivity opens up a wide range of mechanistic pulse radiolysis investigations that were previously difficult or impossible to perform with transient UV/visible detection.