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Rui G, Allahyarov E, Thomas JJ, Taylor PL, Zhu L. Temperature-Dependent Rotational Dipole Mobility and Devitrification of the Rigid Amorphous Fraction in Unpoled and Poled Biaxially Oriented Poly(vinylidene fluoride). Macromolecules 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.2c01110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Guanchun Rui
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio44106-7202, United States
| | - Elshad Allahyarov
- Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio44106-7079, United States
- Theoretical Department, Joint Institute for High Temperatures, Russian Academy of Sciences, 13/19 Izhorskaya Street, Moscow125412, Russia
- Institut für Theoretische Physik II: Weiche Materie, Heinrich-Heine-Universität Düsseldorf, DüsseldorfD-40225, Germany
| | - John J. Thomas
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts02155, United States
| | - Philip L. Taylor
- Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio44106-7079, United States
| | - Lei Zhu
- Department of Macromolecular Science and Engineering, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, Ohio44106-7202, United States
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Das S, Mukherjee B, Biswas R. Orientational dynamics in a room temperature ionic liquid: Are angular jumps predominant? J Chem Phys 2018; 148:193839. [DOI: 10.1063/1.5017797] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Suman Das
- Chemical, Biological and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
| | - Biswaroop Mukherjee
- Thematic Unit for Excellence–Computational Materials Science, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
| | - Ranjit Biswas
- Chemical, Biological and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
- Thematic Unit for Excellence–Computational Materials Science, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700106, India
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Das S, Biswas R, Mukherjee B. Collective dynamic dipole moment and orientation fluctuations, cooperative hydrogen bond relaxations, and their connections to dielectric relaxation in ionic acetamide deep eutectics: Microscopic insight from simulations. J Chem Phys 2017; 145:084504. [PMID: 27586932 DOI: 10.1063/1.4961586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
The paper reports a detailed simulation study on collective reorientational relaxation, cooperative hydrogen bond (H-bond) fluctuations, and their connections to dielectric relaxation (DR) in deep eutectic solvents made of acetamide and three uni-univalent electrolytes, lithium nitrate (LiNO3), lithium bromide (LiBr), and lithium perchlorate (LiClO4). Because cooperative H-bond fluctuations and ion migration complicate the straightforward interpretation of measured DR timescales in terms of molecular dipolar rotations for these conducting media which support extensive intra- and inter-species H-bonding, one needs to separate out the individual components from the overall relaxation for examining the microscopic origin of various timescales. The present study does so and finds that reorientation of ion-complexed acetamide molecules generates relaxation timescales that are in sub-nanosecond to nanosecond range. This explains in molecular terms the nanosecond timescales reported by recent giga-Hertz DR measurements. Interestingly, the simulated survival timescale for the acetamide-Li(+) complex has been found to be a few tens of nanosecond, suggesting such a cation-complexed species may be responsible for a similar timescale reported by mega-Hertz DR measurements of acetamide/potassium thiocyanate deep eutectics near room temperature. The issue of collective versus single particle relaxation is discussed, and jump waiting time distributions are determined. Dependence on anion-identity in each of the cases has been examined. In short, the present study demonstrates that assumption of nano-sized domain formation is not required for explaining the DR detected nanosecond and longer timescales in these media.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suman Das
- Chemical, Biological and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Ranjit Biswas
- Chemical, Biological and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Biswaroop Mukherjee
- Thematic Unit for Excellence - Computational Materials Science, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
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Giełdoń A, Bobrowski M, Bielicka-Giełdoń A, Czaplewski C. Theoretical calculation of the physico-chemical properties of 1-butyl-4-methylpyridinium based ionic liquids. J Mol Liq 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2016.11.087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Schröder C, Steinhauser O. Charged, dipolar soft matter systems from a combined microscopic-mesoscopic viewpoint. JOURNAL OF PHYSICS. CONDENSED MATTER : AN INSTITUTE OF PHYSICS JOURNAL 2016; 28:344008. [PMID: 27376788 DOI: 10.1088/0953-8984/28/34/344008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
As an example of charged, dipolar soft matter, the ionic liquid 1-ethyl-3-methyl-imidazolium dicyanamide is studied by coarse-grained molecular dynamics simulations. We focus on the link between microscopic and mesoscopic properties for both structure and dynamics. Thereby, the generalized Kirkwood g K-factor plays a central role in establishing this link which is not possible on the basis of molecular hydrodynamics. The decoupling between translational and rotational motion is indicative of the dynamical heterogeneity in ionic liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Schröder
- Department of Computational Biological Chemistry, Währingerstr. 17, A-1090 Vienna, Austria
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Rumble CA, Kaintz A, Yadav SK, Conway B, Araque JC, Baker GA, Margulis C, Maroncelli M. Rotational Dynamics in Ionic Liquids from NMR Relaxation Experiments and Simulations: Benzene and 1-Ethyl-3-Methylimidazolium. J Phys Chem B 2016; 120:9450-67. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.6b06715] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher A. Rumble
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Anne Kaintz
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Sharad K. Yadav
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Brian Conway
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Juan C. Araque
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Gary A. Baker
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri 65211, United States
| | - Claudio Margulis
- Department
of Chemistry, University of Iowa, Iowa City, Iowa 52242, United States
| | - Mark Maroncelli
- Department
of Chemistry, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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Daschakraborty S, Biswas R. Dielectric relaxation in ionic liquid/dipolar solvent binary mixtures: A semi-molecular theory. J Chem Phys 2016; 144:104505. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4943271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Majhi D, Sahu PK, Seth S, Sarkar M. Probing the interactions of structurally similar but chemically distinguishable organic solutes with 1-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium alkyl sulfate (alkyl = ethyl, hexyl and octyl) ionic liquids through fluorescence, NMR and fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS) studies. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2016; 18:22343-54. [DOI: 10.1039/c6cp03006h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Structurally similar but chemically distinguishable solutes provide idea about intermolecular interactions in ionic liquids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debashis Majhi
- School of Chemical Sciences
- National Institute of Science Education and Research
- Khurda 752050
- India
| | - Prabhat Kumar Sahu
- School of Chemical Sciences
- National Institute of Science Education and Research
- Khurda 752050
- India
| | - Sudipta Seth
- School of Chemistry
- University of Hyderabad
- Hyderabad – 500046
- India
| | - Moloy Sarkar
- School of Chemical Sciences
- National Institute of Science Education and Research
- Khurda 752050
- India
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Pal T, Biswas R. Composition Dependence of Dynamic Heterogeneity Time- and Length Scales in [Omim][BF4]/Water Binary Mixtures: Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:15683-95. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b08763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tamisra Pal
- Department of Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Ranjit Biswas
- Department of Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences, S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, Block-JD, Sector-III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
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Abstract
Ionic liquids (ILs) are defined as salts with melting points below 100 °C. They attracted much attention in the last two decades due to their unique set of properties, including high conductivities, low viscosities, negligible vapor pressure, and high electrochemical resistance. ILs are seen as tunable systems, of which (also in mixtures) up to 10(19) combinations may exist. These properties make ILs interesting candidates for a variety of fundamental to industrial applications. Our addition to this field was weakly coordinating, little interacting anions, the highly fluorinated aluminates [Al(OR(F))4](-) (R(F) = C(CF3)3, C(CH3), (CF3)2, and CH(CF3)2 and later also CH2(CF3)). We have used these anions in a broad spectrum of applications, including the stabilization of reactive cations, (polymerization) catalysis, and conducting salts for cyclic voltammetry or in electrochemical cells. Especially the [Al(Ohfip)4](-) (hfip = CH(CF3)2) anions in combination with asymmetric organic cations turned out to be very well suited for the synthesis of ILs with very low melting points, some even far below 0 °C. Also the analogous borates, [B(OR(F))4](-), were shown to yield ILs, and currently a plethora of such aluminate and borate ILs have been synthesized and thoroughly investigated. In many aspects, at least the [Al(Ohfip)4](-) ILs present almost ideally noninteracting prototype ILs with (nearly) isotropic but weak and flat Coulomb potential. Consequently, their overall interionic interactions are significantly reduced compared with other classes of ILs, resulting in an extraordinarily low degree, or (for short cation chain lengths below six) even complete absence of ion pairing. From thorough analysis of the principles governing the physical properties of this highly fluorinated IL class with minimized interactions, we were able to learn basic principles that could be extended, for example, to the prediction of the principal properties of a wide variety of typical ILs. In this Account, we give a comprehensive review of their syntheses, thermal and toxicological behavior, physical as well as dynamic properties, and use in electrochemical applications. We delineate advantages and limitations of the [M(III)(OR(F))4](-) ILs developed in our lab and give an outlook on those fields, in which there is still a lack of knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander B. A. Rupp
- Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Institute for Inorganic and Analytical
Chemistry, Albertstrasse
21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center, Stefan-Meier-Strasse 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - Ingo Krossing
- Albert-Ludwigs-University Freiburg, Institute for Inorganic and Analytical
Chemistry, Albertstrasse
21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
- Freiburg Materials Research Center, Stefan-Meier-Strasse 21, 79104 Freiburg, Germany
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Mukherjee K, Das A, Choudhury S, Barman A, Biswas R. Dielectric Relaxations of (Acetamide + Electrolyte) Deep Eutectic Solvents in the Frequency Window, 0.2 ≤ ν/GHz ≤ 50: Anion and Cation Dependence. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:8063-71. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b01502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kallol Mukherjee
- Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences (CBMS), and ‡Condensed Matter
Physics and Material Sciences (CMPMS), S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, JD Block, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Anuradha Das
- Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences (CBMS), and ‡Condensed Matter
Physics and Material Sciences (CMPMS), S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, JD Block, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Samiran Choudhury
- Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences (CBMS), and ‡Condensed Matter
Physics and Material Sciences (CMPMS), S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, JD Block, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Anjan Barman
- Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences (CBMS), and ‡Condensed Matter
Physics and Material Sciences (CMPMS), S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, JD Block, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
| | - Ranjit Biswas
- Chemical, Biological
and Macromolecular Sciences (CBMS), and ‡Condensed Matter
Physics and Material Sciences (CMPMS), S. N. Bose National Centre for Basic Sciences, JD Block, Sector III, Salt Lake, Kolkata 700098, India
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Hirosawa K, Fujii K, Hashimoto K, Umebayashi Y, Shibayama M. Microscopic Solvation Structure of Glucose in 1-Ethyl-3-methylimidazolium Methylphosphonate Ionic Liquid. J Phys Chem B 2015; 119:6262-70. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.5b00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kazu Hirosawa
- Institute for Solid State Physics, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8581, Japan
| | - Kenta Fujii
- Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Yamaguchi University, 2-16-1 Tokiwadai, Ube, Yamaguchi 755-8611, Japan
| | - Kei Hashimoto
- Institute for Solid State Physics, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8581, Japan
| | - Yasuhiro Umebayashi
- Graduate School of Science and
Technology, Niigata University, 8050, Ikarashi, 2-no-cho, Nishi-ku, Niigata 950-2181, Japan
| | - Mitsuhiro Shibayama
- Institute for Solid State Physics, The University of Tokyo, 5-1-5 Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8581, Japan
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Roznyatovskaya N, Rupp ABA, Tübke J, Krossing I. Sieving Effects in Electrical Double-Layer Capacitors Based on Neat [Al(hfip)4]−and [NTf2]−Ionic Liquids. ChemElectroChem 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/celc.201500024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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Das SK, Sahu PK, Sarkar M. Studies on electronic energy transfer (EET) on a series of room temperature ionic liquids (RTILs): can the EET studies on RTILs be exploited to predict their structural organization? RSC Adv 2014. [DOI: 10.1039/c4ra05582a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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17
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Rupp A, Roznyatovskaya N, Scherer H, Beichel W, Klose P, Sturm C, Hoffmann A, Tübke J, Koslowski T, Krossing I. Size Matters! On the Way to Ionic Liquid Systems without Ion Pairing. Chemistry 2014; 20:9794-804. [DOI: 10.1002/chem.201400168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Daschakraborty S, Biswas R. Dielectric relaxation in ionic liquids: Role of ion-ion and ion-dipole interactions, and effects of heterogeneity. J Chem Phys 2014; 140:014504. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4860516] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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21
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Pal T, Biswas R. Rank-dependent orientational relaxation in an ionic liquid: an all-atom simulation study. Theor Chem Acc 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s00214-013-1348-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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22
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Origin of the correlation between the standard Gibbs energies of ion transfer from water to a hydrophobic ionic liquid and to a molecular solvent. Electrochim Acta 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.electacta.2012.09.110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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23
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Daschakraborty S, Biswas R. Ultrafast solvation response in room temperature ionic liquids: Possible origin and importance of the collective and the nearest neighbour solvent modes. J Chem Phys 2012; 137:114501. [DOI: 10.1063/1.4752425] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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Stoppa A, Hunger J, Hefter G, Buchner R. Structure and Dynamics of 1-N-Alkyl-3-N-Methylimidazolium Tetrafluoroborate + Acetonitrile Mixtures. J Phys Chem B 2012; 116:7509-21. [DOI: 10.1021/jp3020673] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Stoppa
- Institut für Physikalische
und Theoretische Chemie, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Johannes Hunger
- Institut für Physikalische
und Theoretische Chemie, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
| | - Glenn Hefter
- Chemistry Department, Murdoch University, Murdoch, WA 6150, Australia
| | - Richard Buchner
- Institut für Physikalische
und Theoretische Chemie, Universität Regensburg, D-93040 Regensburg, Germany
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Jiang Y, Nadolny H, Käshammer S, Weibels S, Schröer W, Weingärtner H. The ion speciation of ionic liquids in molecular solvents of low and medium polarity. Faraday Discuss 2012; 154:391-407; discussion 439-64, 465-71. [PMID: 22455032 DOI: 10.1039/c1fd00075f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The ion speciation of ionic liquids dissolved in molecular liquids of low and medium polarity is studied experimentally and theoretically. The ion speciation in some representative systems is characterized by dielectric relaxation spectroscopy and electrical conductance measurements. A corresponding-states approach is used to compare the experimental results with predictions for a reference system of charged hard spheres in a dielectric continuum. Topics of special interest are the formation of ion pairs and larger ion clusters in dilute solutions and their fate at high concentrations, where they have to redissociate in the excess ionic liquid to form the charge-ordered structure of the fused salt. In solvents of low polarity this transition leads to electrical conductance minima and liquid-liquid immiscibilities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanping Jiang
- Department of Physical Chemistry 2, Faculty of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Ruhr-University Bochum, D-44780 Bochum, Germany
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Yamaguchi T, Koda S. Assignment of the dielectric relaxation of ionic liquid and its implication to the ionic conduction mechanism. J Mol Liq 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2011.03.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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27
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Daschakraborty S, Biswas R. Stokes’ shift dynamics in alkylimidazolium aluminate ionic liquids: Domination of solute-IL dipole–dipole interaction. Chem Phys Lett 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cplett.2011.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Alam TM, Dreyer DR, Bielwaski CW, Ruoff RS. Measuring Molecular Dynamics and Activation Energies for Quaternary Acyclic Ammonium and Cyclic Pyrrolidinium Ionic Liquids Using 14N NMR Spectroscopy. J Phys Chem A 2011; 115:4307-16. [DOI: 10.1021/jp200630k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Todd M. Alam
- Department of Electronic and Nanostructured Materials, Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico 87185-0886, United States
| | - Daniel R. Dreyer
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, One University Station, A5300, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Christopher W. Bielwaski
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, The University of Texas at Austin, One University Station, A5300, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
| | - Rodney S. Ruoff
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and the Texas Materials Institute, The University of Texas at Austin, One University Station, C2200, Austin, Texas 78712, United States
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