1
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Noisternig SM, Rentenberger C, Gammer C, Karnthaler HP, Kotakoski J. Probing the interaction range of electron beam-induced etching in STEM by a non-contact electron beam. Ultramicroscopy 2024; 265:114019. [PMID: 39094366 DOI: 10.1016/j.ultramic.2024.114019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2024] [Revised: 07/11/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Beside its main purpose as a high-end tool in material analysis reaching the atomic scale for structure, chemical and electronic properties, aberration-corrected scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) is increasingly used as a tool to manipulate materials down to that very same scale. In order to obtain exact and reproducible results, it is essential to consider the interaction processes and interaction ranges between the electron beam and the involved materials. Here, we show in situ that electron beam-induced etching in a low-pressure oxygen atmosphere can extend up to a distance of several nm away from the Ångström-size electron beam, usually used for probing the sample. This relatively long-range interaction is related to beam tails and inelastic scattering involved in the etching process. To suppress the influence of surface diffusion, we measure the etching effect indirectly on isolated nm-sized holes in a 2 nm thin amorphous carbon foil that is commonly used as sample support in STEM. During our experiments, the electron beam is placed inside the nanoholes so that most electrons cannot directly participate in the etching process. We characterize the etching process from measuring etching rates at multiple nanoholes with different distances between the hole edge and the electron beam.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Manuel Noisternig
- University of Vienna, Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Boltzmanngasse 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria; Austrian Academy of Sciences, Erich Schmid Institute of Materials Science, Jahnstraße 12, 8700, Leoben, Austria.
| | - Christian Rentenberger
- University of Vienna, Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Boltzmanngasse 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Christoph Gammer
- Austrian Academy of Sciences, Erich Schmid Institute of Materials Science, Jahnstraße 12, 8700, Leoben, Austria
| | - H Peter Karnthaler
- University of Vienna, Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Boltzmanngasse 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Jani Kotakoski
- University of Vienna, Physics of Nanostructured Materials, Boltzmanngasse 5, 1090 Vienna, Austria
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2
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Ye S, Chen X, Sun X, Patel SB, Wu Y, Singler TJ, Zhang P, Zhou G. Oxidation-Induced Oxide Shell Rupture and Phase Separation in Eutectic Gallium-Indium Nanoparticles. ACS NANO 2024; 18:25107-25117. [PMID: 39190644 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.4c06764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/29/2024]
Abstract
Eutectic gallium-indium (EGaIn), a room-temperature liquid metal, has garnered significant attention for its applications in soft electronics, multifunctional materials, energy engineering and drug delivery. A key factor influencing these diverse applications is the spontaneous formation of a native passivating oxide shell that not only encapsulates the liquid metal but also alters the properties from the bulk counterpart. Using environmental scanning transmission electron microscopy, we report in situ observations of the oxidation of EGaIn nanoparticles by ambient air under high-energy electron beam irradiation. Our findings demonstrate that uneven oxide shell growth, driven by inward diffusion of adsorbed O species, creates unbalanced stresses. This compels the liquid metal to deform toward regions with slower oxide growth, resulting in shell rupture and allowing the liquid metal core to flow out. This process initiates top-down self-similar replication of the core-shell liquid metal nanoparticles, causing larger particles to break down into smaller particles. Additionally, internal oxidation triggers phase separation within the liquid core, ultimately leading to the pulverization of the liquid metal into finer solid particles rich in indium. These mechanistic insights into the oxidation behavior of the liquid metal hold practical implications for leveraging this process to reconfigure EGaIn nanoparticles for various applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuonan Ye
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Xiaobo Chen
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Xianhu Sun
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Shyam Bharatkumar Patel
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Yupeng Wu
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Timothy J Singler
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Pu Zhang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
| | - Guangwen Zhou
- Department of Mechanical Engineering & Materials Science and Engineering Program, State University of New York at Binghamton, Binghamton, New York 13902, United States
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Szalay JR, Allegrini F, Ebert RW, Bagenal F, Bolton SJ, Fatemi S, McComas DJ, Pontoni A, Saur J, Smith HT, Strobel DF, Vance SD, Vorburger A, Wilson RJ. Oxygen production from dissociation of Europa's water-ice surface. NATURE ASTRONOMY 2024; 8:567-576. [PMID: 38798715 PMCID: PMC11111413 DOI: 10.1038/s41550-024-02206-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 01/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
Jupiter's moon Europa has a predominantly water-ice surface that is modified by exposure to its space environment. Charged particles break molecular bonds in surface ice, thus dissociating the water to ultimately produce H2 and O2, which provides a potential oxygenation mechanism for Europa's subsurface ocean. These species are understood to form Europa's primary atmospheric constituents. Although remote observations provide important global constraints on Europa's atmosphere, the molecular O2 abundance has been inferred from atomic O emissions. Europa's atmospheric composition had never been directly sampled and model-derived oxygen production estimates ranged over several orders of magnitude. Here, we report direct observations of H2+ and O2+ pickup ions from the dissociation of Europa's water-ice surface and confirm these species are primary atmospheric constituents. In contrast to expectations, we find the H2 neutral atmosphere is dominated by a non-thermal, escaping population. We find 12 ± 6 kg s-1 (2.2 ± 1.2 × 1026 s-1) O2 are produced within Europa's surface, less than previously thought, with a narrower range to support habitability in Europa's ocean. This process is found to be Europa's dominant exogenic surface erosion mechanism over meteoroid bombardment.
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Affiliation(s)
- J. R. Szalay
- Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ USA
| | - F. Allegrini
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX USA
| | - R. W. Ebert
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX USA
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX USA
| | - F. Bagenal
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO USA
| | - S. J. Bolton
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX USA
| | - S. Fatemi
- Department of Physics, University of Umeå, Umeå, Sweden
| | - D. J. McComas
- Department of Astrophysical Sciences, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ USA
| | - A. Pontoni
- Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, TX USA
| | - J. Saur
- Institute of Geophysics and Meteorology, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - H. T. Smith
- The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Baltimore, MD USA
| | | | - S. D. Vance
- Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA USA
| | - A. Vorburger
- Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - R. J. Wilson
- Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO USA
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Sahara T, Wongsawaeng D, Ngaosuwan K, Kiatkittipong W, Hosemann P, Assabumrungrat S. Highly effective removal of perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) in water with DBD-plasma-enhanced rice husks. Sci Rep 2023; 13:13210. [PMID: 37580377 PMCID: PMC10425357 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-40197-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2023] [Accepted: 08/06/2023] [Indexed: 08/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Adsorption is regarded as an efficient method to eliminate per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances from an aqueous solution. In the present investigation, an adsorbent based on rice husks (RHs) was successfully prepared by phosphoric acid (PA) activation and dielectric barrier discharge (DBD) plasma treatment, and it was used to adsorb perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA) from water. The electrodes employed in the experiment were planar type. This research investigated RH surface properties and adsorption capacity before and after modification using DBD plasma. The results revealed that the He-O2 plasma modification introduced oxygen-containing functional groups and increased the PFOA removal efficiency. Increasing the oxygen content and total gas flow rate to 30 vol.% and 1.5 L/min, respectively, with 10 min of RH plasma treatment time at 100 W plasma discharge power enhanced the PFOA removal efficiency to 92.0%, while non-treated RH showed the removal efficiency of only 46.4%. The removal efficiency of the solution increased to 96.7% upon adjusting the pH to 4. The adsorption equilibrium isotherms fitted the Langmuir model, and the adsorption kinetic followed the pseudo-second-order model. The maximum adsorption capacity was 565 mg/g when the Langmuir isotherm model was applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thera Sahara
- Research Unit on Plasma Technology for High-Performance Materials Development, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, 10330, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Doonyapong Wongsawaeng
- Research Unit on Plasma Technology for High-Performance Materials Development, Department of Nuclear Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, 254 Phayathai Road, Pathumwan, 10330, Bangkok, Thailand.
| | - Kanokwan Ngaosuwan
- Division of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Rajamangala University of Technology Krungthep, Bangkok, 10120, Thailand
| | - Worapon Kiatkittipong
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Industrial Technology, Silpakorn University, Nakhon Pathom, 73000, Thailand
| | - Peter Hosemann
- Department of Nuclear Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, 94720, USA
| | - Suttichai Assabumrungrat
- Center of Excellence in Catalysis and Catalytic Reaction Engineering, Department of Chemical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
- Bio-Circular-Green-Economy Technology & Engineering Center (BCGeTEC), Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, 10330, Thailand
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5
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Liu L, Shao G, Ma C, Nikiforov A, De Geyter N, Morent R. Plasma-catalysis for VOCs decomposition: A review on micro- and macroscopic modeling. JOURNAL OF HAZARDOUS MATERIALS 2023; 451:131100. [PMID: 36893595 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhazmat.2023.131100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2022] [Revised: 02/23/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Plasma-catalysis has been recognized as a promising method to decompose hazardous volatile organic compounds (VOCs) since many years ago. To understand the fundamental mechanisms of VOCs decomposition by plasma-catalysis systems, both experimental and modeling studies have been extensively carried out. However, literature on summarized modeling methodologies is still scarce. In this short review, we therefore present a comprehensive overview of modeling methodologies ranging from microscopic to macroscopic modeling in plasma-catalysis for VOCs decomposition. The modeling methods of VOCs decomposition by plasma and plasma-catalysis are classified and summarized. The roles of plasma and plasma-catalyst interactions in VOCs decomposition are also critically examined. Taking the current advances in understanding the decomposition mechanisms of VOCs into account, we finally provide our perspectives for future research directions. This short review aims to stimulate the further development of plasma-catalysis for VOCs decomposition in both fundamental studies and practical applications with advanced modeling methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liu
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China.
| | - Guangcai Shao
- School of Energy and Power Engineering, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang 212013, China
| | - Chuanlong Ma
- Research Unit Plasma Technology (RUPT), Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Anton Nikiforov
- Research Unit Plasma Technology (RUPT), Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nathalie De Geyter
- Research Unit Plasma Technology (RUPT), Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Rino Morent
- Research Unit Plasma Technology (RUPT), Department of Applied Physics, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
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6
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Mifsud DV, Kaňuchová Z, Ioppolo S, Herczku P, Traspas Muiña A, Sulik B, Rahul KK, Kovács STS, Hailey PA, McCullough RW, Mason NJ, Juhász Z. Ozone production in electron irradiated CO 2:O 2 ices. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:18169-18178. [PMID: 35861183 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp01535h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The detection of ozone (O3) in the surface ices of Ganymede, Jupiter's largest moon, and of the Saturnian moons Rhea and Dione, has motivated several studies on the route of formation of this species. Previous studies have successfully quantified trends in the production of O3 as a result of the irradiation of pure molecular ices using ultraviolet photons and charged particles (i.e., ions and electrons), such as the abundances of O3 formed after irradiation at different temperatures or using different charged particles. In this study, we extend such results by quantifying the abundance of O3 as a result of the 1 keV electron irradiation of a series of 14 stoichiometrically distinct CO2:O2 astrophysical ice analogues at 20 K. By using mid-infrared spectroscopy as our primary analytical tool, we have also been able to perform a spectral analysis of the asymmetric stretching mode of solid O3 and the variation in its observed shape and profile among the investigated ice mixtures. Our results are important in the context of better understanding the surface composition and chemistry of icy outer Solar System objects, and may thus be of use to future interplanetary space missions such as the ESA Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer and the NASA Europa Clipper missions, as well as the recently launched NASA James Webb Space Telescope.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duncan V Mifsud
- Centre for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NH, UK. .,Institute for Nuclear Research (Atomki), Debrecen H-4026, Hungary.
| | - Zuzana Kaňuchová
- Astronomical Institute, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Tatranská Lomnica SK-059 60, Slovakia.
| | - Sergio Ioppolo
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Péter Herczku
- Institute for Nuclear Research (Atomki), Debrecen H-4026, Hungary.
| | - Alejandra Traspas Muiña
- School of Electronic Engineering and Computer Science, Queen Mary University of London, London E1 4NS, UK.
| | - Béla Sulik
- Institute for Nuclear Research (Atomki), Debrecen H-4026, Hungary.
| | - K K Rahul
- Institute for Nuclear Research (Atomki), Debrecen H-4026, Hungary.
| | | | - Perry A Hailey
- Centre for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NH, UK.
| | - Robert W McCullough
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, School of Mathematics and Physics, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
| | - Nigel J Mason
- Centre for Astrophysics and Planetary Science, School of Physical Sciences, University of Kent, Canterbury CT2 7NH, UK.
| | - Zoltán Juhász
- Institute for Nuclear Research (Atomki), Debrecen H-4026, Hungary.
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7
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Qureishy T, Løyland S, Jørgensen SJ, Færgestad EM, Norby T, Uggerud E. Mechanisms for sonochemical oxidation of nitrogen. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2022; 24:15357-15364. [PMID: 35703372 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp01995g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
N2O, and mixtures of N2 and O2, dissolved in water-both in the presence and absence of added noble gases-have been subjected to ultrasonication with quantification of nitrite and nitrate products. Significant increase in product formation upon adding noble gas for both reactant systems is observed, with the reactivity order Ne < Ar < Kr < Xe. These observations lend support to the idea that extraordinarily high electronic and vibrational temperatures arise under these conditions. This is based on recent observations of sonoluminescence in the presence of noble gases and is inconsistent with the classical picture of adiabatic bubble collapse upon acoustic cavitation. The reaction mechanisms of the first few reaction steps necessary for the critical formation of NO are discussed, illustrated by quantum chemical calculations. The role of intermediate N2O in this series of elementary steps is also discussed to better understand the difference between the two reactant sources (N2O and 2 : 1 N2 : O2; same stoichiometry).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Qureishy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Sverre Løyland
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Hylleraas Centre for Quantum Molecular Sciences, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Susanne J Jørgensen
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Centre for Biogeochemistry in the Anthropocene, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Eline M Færgestad
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Centre for Biogeochemistry in the Anthropocene, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Truls Norby
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Centre for Materials Science and Nanotechnology, University of Oslo, Norway
| | - Einar Uggerud
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oslo, Norway. .,Hylleraas Centre for Quantum Molecular Sciences, University of Oslo, Norway
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8
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Experimental identification of aminomethanol (NH 2CH 2OH)-the key intermediate in the Strecker Synthesis. Nat Commun 2022; 13:375. [PMID: 35046418 PMCID: PMC8770675 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-27963-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The Strecker Synthesis of (a)chiral α-amino acids from simple organic compounds, such as ammonia (NH3), aldehydes (RCHO), and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) has been recognized as a viable route to amino acids on primordial earth. However, preparation and isolation of the simplest hemiaminal intermediate – the aminomethanol (NH2CH2OH)– formed in the Strecker Synthesis to even the simplest amino acid glycine (H2NCH2COOH) has been elusive. Here, we report the identification of aminomethanol prepared in low-temperature methylamine (CH3NH2) – oxygen (O2) ices upon exposure to energetic electrons. Isomer-selective photoionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (PI-ReTOF-MS) facilitated the gas phase detection of aminomethanol during the temperature program desorption (TPD) phase of the reaction products. The preparation and observation of the key transient aminomethanol changes our perception of the synthetic pathways to amino acids and the unexpected kinetic stability in extreme environments. The Strecker synthesis is considered a viable route to amino acids formation on the primordial Earth. Here the authors succeed in observing its elusive intermediate aminomethanol, formed by insertion of an electronically excited oxygen atom in methylamine and stabilized by an icy matrix, using isomer-selective photoionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry during thermal desorption of the ice mixture.
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9
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Synthesis of methanediol [CH 2(OH) 2]: The simplest geminal diol. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2022; 119:2111938119. [PMID: 34969838 PMCID: PMC8740743 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2111938119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Methanediol [CH2(OH)2] represents a pivotal atmospheric volatile organic compound and plays a fundamental role in aerosol growth. Although sought for decades, methanediol has never been identified due to the inherent dehydration tendency of two adjacent hydroxyl groups (OH) at the same carbon atom. Here, we prepare and identify methanediol via processing of low-temperature ices followed by sublimation into the gas phase. These findings open up a concept to synthesize and characterize unstable geminal diols—critical organic transients in Earth’s atmosphere. The excited state dynamics of oxygen may also lead to methanediol in methanol-rich interstellar ices in cold molecular clouds, followed by sublimation in star-forming regions and prospective detection of these reactive intermediates in the gas phase by radiotelescopes. Geminal diols—organic molecules carrying two hydroxyl groups at the same carbon atom—have been recognized as key reactive intermediates by the physical (organic) chemistry and atmospheric science communities as fundamental transients in the aerosol cycle and in the atmospheric ozonolysis reaction sequence. Anticipating short lifetimes and their tendency to fragment to water plus the aldehyde or ketone, free geminal diols represent one of the most elusive classes of organic reactive intermediates. Here, we afford an exceptional glance into the preparation of the previously elusive methanediol [CH2(OH)2] transient—the simplest geminal diol—via energetic processing of low-temperature methanol–oxygen ices. Methanediol was identified in the gas phase upon sublimation via isomer-selective photoionization reflectron time-of-flight mass spectrometry combined with isotopic substitution studies. Electronic structure calculations reveal that methanediol is formed via excited state dynamics through insertion of electronically excited atomic oxygen into a carbon–hydrogen bond of the methyl group of methanol followed by stabilization in the icy matrix. The first preparation and detection of methanediol demonstrates its gas-phase stability as supported by a significant barrier hindering unimolecular decomposition to formaldehyde and water. These findings advance our perception of the fundamental chemistry and chemical bonding of geminal diols and signify their role as an efficient sink of aldehydes and ketones in atmospheric environments eventually coupling the atmospheric chemistry of geminal diols and Criegee intermediates.
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10
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Naclerio AE, Zakharov DN, Kumar J, Rogers B, Pint CL, Shrivastava M, Kidambi PR. Visualizing Oxidation Mechanisms in Few-Layered Black Phosphorus via In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2020; 12:15844-15854. [PMID: 32134627 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.9b21116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Layered two-dimensional (2D) black phosphorus (BP) exhibits novel semiconducting properties including a tunable bandgap and high electron mobility. However, the poor stability of BP in ambient environment severely limits potential for application in future electronic and optoelectronic devices. While passivation or encapsulation of BP using inert materials/polymers has emerged as a plausible solution, a detailed fundamental understanding of BP's reaction with oxygen is imperative to rationally advance its use in applications. Here, we use in situ environmental transmission electron microscopy to elucidate atomistic structural changes in mechanically exfoliated few-layered BP during exposure to varying partial pressures of oxygen. An amorphous oxide layer is seen on the actively etching BP edges, and the thickness of this layer increases with increasing oxygen partial pressure, indicating that oxidation proceeds via initial formation of amorphous PxOy species which sublime to result in the etching of the BP crystal. We observe that while few-layered BP is stable under the 80 kV electron beam (e-beam) in vacuum, the lattice oxidizes and degrades at room temperature in the presence of oxygen only in the region under the e-beam. The oxidative etch rate also increases with increasing e-beam dosage, suggesting the presence of an energy barrier for the oxidation reaction. Preferential oxidative etching along the [0 0 1] and [0 0 1] crystallographic directions is observed, in good agreement with density functional theory calculations showing favorable thermodynamic stability of the oxidized BP (0 0 1) planes compared to the (1 0 0) planes. We expect the atomistic insights and fundamental understanding obtained here to aid in the development of novel approaches to integrate BP in future applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrew E Naclerio
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1826, United States
| | - Dmitri N Zakharov
- Center for Functional Nanomaterials, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, New York 11973, United States
| | - Jeevesh Kumar
- Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Bridget Rogers
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1826, United States
| | - Cary L Pint
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37212, United States
| | - Mayank Shrivastava
- Department of Electronic Systems Engineering, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, Karnataka 560012, India
| | - Piran R Kidambi
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235-1826, United States
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11
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12
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Abstract
The kinetic Monte Carlo method, used in astrochemistry to investigate suprathermal (hot) particles at the molecular level, is presented. Different modifications of this method, aimed at studying the influence of suprathermal particles in the processes occurring in gas and dust envelopes surrounding astrophysical objects — prestellar and protostellar cores of molecular clouds, planets, their moons, and comets in the Solar and extrasolar planetary systems — are considered. The important role of the fraction of suprathermal particles in astrochemical applications of this approach is demonstrated. The presence of these particles leads to local changes in the chemical composition; causes non-thermal emissions in gas and dust envelopes; enhances the chemical exchange between the gas and dust fractions of envelope; leads to the formation of extended hot coronae of planets; increases non-thermal atmospheric losses, thus determining the evolution of planetary atmosphere on astronomical time scales; and facilitates the formation of complex molecules in gas and dust envelopes of astrophysical objects.
The bibliography includes 146 references.
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13
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14
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Molecule Relaxation. RADIATION 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-63979-0.00013-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
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15
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Gudmundsson JT, Lundin D, Brenning N, Raadu MA, Huo C, Minea TM. An ionization region model of the reactive Ar/O2high power impulse magnetron sputtering discharge. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016. [DOI: 10.1088/0963-0252/25/6/065004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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16
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Frankland VL, Rosu-Finsen A, Lasne J, Collings MP, McCoustra MRS. Laboratory surface astrochemistry experiments. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2015; 86:055103. [PMID: 26026554 DOI: 10.1063/1.4919657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Although several research groups have studied the formation of H2 on interstellar dust grains using surface science techniques, few have explored the formation of more complex molecules. A small number of these reactions produce molecules that remain on the surface of interstellar dust grains and, over time, lead to the formation of icy mantles. The most abundant of these species within the ice is H2O and is of particular interest as the observed molecular abundance cannot be accounted for using gas-phase chemistry alone. This article provides a brief introduction to the astronomical implications and motivations behind this research and the requirement for a new dual atomic beam ultrahigh vacuum (UHV) system. Further details of the apparatus design, characterisation, and calibration of the system are provided along with preliminary data from atomic O and O2 beam dosing on bare silica substrate and subsequent temperature programmed desorption measurements. The results obtained in this ongoing research may enable more chemically accurate surface formation mechanisms to be deduced for this and other species before simulating the kinetic data under interstellar conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- V L Frankland
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - A Rosu-Finsen
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - J Lasne
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - M P Collings
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
| | - M R S McCoustra
- Institute of Chemical Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, Edinburgh EH14 4AS, United Kingdom
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17
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Ennis CP, Bennett CJ, Kaiser RI. On the formation of ozone in oxygen-rich solar system ices via ionizing radiation. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:9469-82. [PMID: 21483931 DOI: 10.1039/c1cp20434c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The irradiation of pure molecular oxygen (O(2)) and carbon dioxide (CO(2)) ices with 5 keV H(+) and He(+) ions was investigated experimentally to simulate the chemical processing of oxygen rich planetary and interstellar surfaces by exposure to galactic cosmic ray (GCR), solar wind, and magnetospheric particles. Deposited at 12 K under ultra-high vacuum conditions (UHV), the irradiated condensates were monitored on-line and in situ in the solid-state by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), revealing the formation of ozone (O(3)) in irradiated oxygen ice; and ozone, carbon monoxide (CO), and cyclic carbon trioxide (c-CO(3)) in irradiated carbon dioxide. In addition to these irradiation products, evolution of gas-phase molecular hydrogen (H(2)), atomic helium (He) and molecular oxygen (O(2)) were identified in the subliming oxygen and carbon dioxide condensates by quadrupole mass spectrometry (QMS). Temporal abundances of the oxygen and carbon dioxide precursors and the observed molecular products were compiled over the irradiation period to develop reaction schemes unfolding in the ices. These reactions were observed to be dependent on the generation of atomic oxygen (O) by the homolytic dissociation of molecular oxygen induced by electronic, S(e), and nuclear, S(n), interaction with the impinging ions. In addition, the destruction of the ozone and carbon trioxide products back to the molecular oxygen and carbon dioxide precursors was promoted over an extended period of ion bombardment. Finally, destruction and formation yields were calculated and compared between irradiation sources (including 5 keV electrons) which showed a surprising correlation between the molecular yields (∼10(-3)-10(-4) molecules eV(-1)) created by H(+) and He(+) impacts. However, energy transfer by isoenergetic, fast electrons typically generated ten times more product molecules per electron volt (∼10(-2)-10(-3) molecules eV(-1)) than exposure to the ions. Implications of these findings to Solar System chemistry are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Courtney P Ennis
- Department of Chemistry, University of Hawai'i at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
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18
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Ennis C, Yuan H, Sibener SJ, Kaiser RI. On the chemical processing of hydrocarbon surfaces by fast oxygen ions. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2011; 13:17870-84. [DOI: 10.1039/c1cp21800j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
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19
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Bennett CJ, Jamieson CS, Kaiser RI. Mechanistical studies on the formation and destruction of carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and carbon trioxide (CO3) in interstellar ice analog samples. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2010; 12:4032-50. [DOI: 10.1039/b917162b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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20
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Ağıral A, Trionfetti C, Lefferts L, Seshan K, (Han) Gardeniers JGE. Propane Conversion at Ambient Temperatures C-C and C-H Bond Activation Using Cold Plasma in a Microreactor. Chem Eng Technol 2008. [DOI: 10.1002/ceat.200800175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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21
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Trionfetti C, Ağıral A, Gardeniers HJGE, Lefferts L, Seshan K. Alkane Activation at Ambient Temperatures: Unusual Selectivities, CC, CH Bond Scission versus CC Bond Coupling. Chemphyschem 2008; 9:533-7. [DOI: 10.1002/cphc.200700757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
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22
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Hueso JL, Gonzalez-Elipe AR, Cotrino J, Caballero A. Removal of NO in NO/N2, NO/N2/O2, NO/CH4/N2, and NO/CH4/O2/N2 Systems by Flowing Microwave Discharges. J Phys Chem A 2007; 111:1057-65. [PMID: 17286359 DOI: 10.1021/jp063315v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
In this paper, continuing previous work, we report on experiments carried out to investigate the removal of NO from simulated flue gas in nonthermal plasmas. The plasma-induced decomposition of small concentrations of NO in N2 used as the carrier gas and O2 and CH4 as minority components has been studied in a surface wave discharge induced with a surfatron launcher. The reaction products and efficiency have been monitored by mass spectrometry as a function of the composition of the mixture. NO is effectively decomposed into N2 and O2 even in the presence of O2, provided always that enough CH4 is also present in the mixture. Other majority products of the plasma reactions under these conditions are NH3, CO, and H2. In the absence of O2, decomposition of NO also occurs, although in that case HCN accompanies the other reaction products as a majority component. The plasma for the different reaction mixtures has been characterized by optical emission spectroscopy. Intermediate excited species of NO*, C*, CN*, NH*, and CH* have been monitored depending on the gas mixture. The type of species detected and their evolution with the gas composition are in agreement with the reaction products detected in each case. The observations by mass spectrometry and optical emission spectroscopy are in agreement with the kinetic reaction models available in literature for simple plasma reactions in simple reaction mixtures.
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Affiliation(s)
- José L Hueso
- Instituto de Ciencia de Materiales de Sevilla (CSIC-Universidad de Sevilla), Avda Américo Vespucio 49, 41092 Sevilla, Spain
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23
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Zhao GB, Garikipati SVBJ, Hu X, Argyle MD, Radosz M. Effect of oxygen on nonthermal plasma reactions of nitrogen oxides in nitrogen. AIChE J 2005. [DOI: 10.1002/aic.10452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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24
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Makarov OP. Electron impact dissociative excitation of O2: 1. Kinetic energy distributions of fast oxygen atoms. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2000je001422] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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25
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Kanik I. Electron impact dissociative excitation of O2: 2. Absolute emission cross sections of the OI(130.4 nm) and OI(135.6 nm) lines. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2003. [DOI: 10.1029/2000je001423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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26
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MORI S, AKATSUKA H, SUZUKI M. Numerical Analysis of Carbon Isotope Separation by Plasma Chemical Reactions in Carbon Monoxide Glow Discharge. J NUCL SCI TECHNOL 2002. [DOI: 10.1080/18811248.2002.9715244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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27
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Fitzsimmons C, Ismail F, Whitehead JC, Wilman JJ. The Chemistry of Dichloromethane Destruction in Atmospheric-Pressure Gas Streams by a Dielectric Packed-Bed Plasma Reactor. J Phys Chem A 2000. [DOI: 10.1021/jp000354c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- C. Fitzsimmons
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL,U.K
| | - F. Ismail
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL,U.K
| | - J. C. Whitehead
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL,U.K
| | - J. J. Wilman
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manchester, Manchester M13 9PL,U.K
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Bhardwaj A, Michael M. Monte Carlo model for electron degradation in SO2gas: Cross sections, yield spectra, and efficiencies. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1999. [DOI: 10.1029/1999ja900283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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