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Gubal A, Chuchina V, Sorokina A, Solovyev N, Ganeev A. MASS SPECTROMETRY-BASED TECHNIQUES FOR DIRECT QUANTIFICATION OF HIGH IONIZATION ENERGY ELEMENTS IN SOLID MATERIALS-CHALLENGES AND PERSPECTIVES. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2021; 40:359-380. [PMID: 32619078 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The determination of nonmetals, first of all, the most electronegative ones-nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, and bromine, poses the highest challenge for element analysis. These elements are characterized by high reactivity, volatility, high ionization energy, and the absence of intensive spectral lines in the optical spectral range. Conventional techniques of their quantification include considerable "wet chemistry" stages so the application of these techniques for the solid sample is highly laborious and prone to uncontrollable uncertainties. Additionally, current development in material science and other areas requires the quantification of the elements at lower levels with good sensitivity. Owing to their robustness and flexibility, mass spectrometry techniques provide vast possibilities for the quantification, spatial and isotopic analysis, including the solutions for direct analysis of solids. The current review focuses on the application of major mass spectrometric techniques for the quantification of N, O, F, Cl, and Br in solid samples. The following techniques are mainly considered: thermal ionization mass spectrometry (TIMS), isotope-ratio MS (IRMS), secondary ion MS (SIMS), inductively coupled plasma MS (ICP-MS), and glow discharge MS (GDMS); as the most accessible and widely applied for the purpose. General ionization issues, advantages, limitations, and novel methodological solutions are discussed. © 2020 John Wiley & Sons Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Gubal
- Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia
| | - Victoria Chuchina
- Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia
| | - Angelina Sorokina
- Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia
| | - Nikolay Solovyev
- Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia
- Institute of Technology Sligo, Ash Lane, Sligo, F91 YW50, Ireland
| | - Alexander Ganeev
- Institute of Chemistry, St. Petersburg State University, Universitetskaya nab. 7/9, Saint Petersburg, 199034, Russia
- Institute of Toxicology of Federal Medico-Biological Agency, ul. Bekhtereva 1, St. Petersburg, 192019, Russia
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2
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Pan Y, Hu L, Zhao T. Applications of chemical imaging techniques in paleontology. Natl Sci Rev 2019; 6:1040-1053. [PMID: 34691967 PMCID: PMC8291642 DOI: 10.1093/nsr/nwy107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2018] [Revised: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 10/09/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Chemical imaging techniques, based on a combination of microscopy and spectroscopy, are designed to analyse the composition and spatial distribution of heterogeneous chemical complexes within a sample. Over the last few decades, it has become an increasingly popular tool for characterizing trace elements, isotopic information and organic biomarkers (molecular biosignatures) found in fossils. Here, we introduce the analytical principle of each technique and the interpretation of the chemical signals, followed by a review of the main applications of these techniques in paleontology. We also demonstrate that each technique is associated with pros and cons, and the current limitations and obstacles associated with the use of each specific technique should be taken into account before being applied to fossil samples. Finally, we propose that, due to the rapid advances in the available technology and overall trends towards more multi-disciplinary studies in paleontology, chemical imaging techniques can be expected to have broader applications in paleontology in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanhong Pan
- CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
| | - Liang Hu
- CAS Key Laboratory of Economic Stratigraphy and Palaeogeography, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China.,University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Tao Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Palaeobiology and Stratigraphy, Nanjing Institute of Geology and Palaeontology and Center for Excellence in Life and Paleoenvironment, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Nanjing 210008, China
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Li W, Gou W, Li W, Zhang T, Yu B, Liu Q, Shi J. Environmental applications of metal stable isotopes: Silver, mercury and zinc. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2019; 252:1344-1356. [PMID: 31254892 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2019.06.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 06/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
With developments in multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (MC-ICP-MS), applications of metal stable isotopes received increasing attentions in the studies of source and fate of heavy metals in the environment. In light of the rapid progresses in this emerging field, we attempted to review the recent findings comprehensively in a way that environmental scientists can easily read. This review started with an introduction of basic terminologies in isotope geochemistry, followed with detailed descriptions of instrumentation and analytical procedures, and finally focused on the cases of three typical metal stable isotopes (Ag, Hg and Zn) to illustrate how they were applied to address environmental issues. Additionally, future perspectives on the applicability, opportunities, and limitations of metal stable isotope techniques as novel approaches in advancing environmental chemistry were discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wei Li
- Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry, Ministry of Education, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Wenxian Gou
- Key Laboratory of Surficial Geochemistry, Ministry of Education, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Weiqiang Li
- State Key Laboratory of Ore Deposit Research, School of Earth Sciences and Engineering, Nanjing University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Tuoya Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Ben Yu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Qian Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China
| | - Jianbo Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, Research Center for Eco-Environmental Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100085, China.
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Singer BS, Jicha BR, Mochizuki N, Coe RS. Synchronizing volcanic, sedimentary, and ice core records of Earth's last magnetic polarity reversal. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaaw4621. [PMID: 31457087 PMCID: PMC6685714 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aaw4621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/28/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Reversal of Earth's magnetic field polarity every 105 to 106 years is among the most far-reaching, yet enigmatic, geophysical phenomena. The short duration of reversals make precise temporal records of past magnetic field behavior paramount to understanding the processes that produce them. We correlate new 40Ar/39Ar dates from transitionally magnetized lava flows to astronomically dated sediment and ice records to map the evolution of Earth's last reversal. The final 180° polarity reversal at ~773 ka culminates a complex process beginning at ~795 ka with weakening of the field, succeeded by increased field intensity manifested in sediments and ice, and then by an excursion and weakening of intensity at ~784 ka that heralds a >10 ka period wherein sediments record highly variable directions. The 22 ka evolution of this reversal suggested by our findings is mirrored by a numerical geodynamo simulation that may capture much of the naturally observed reversal process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brad S. Singer
- Department of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1215 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Brian R. Jicha
- Department of Geoscience, University of Wisconsin-Madison, 1215 West Dayton Street, Madison, WI 53706, USA
| | - Nobutatsu Mochizuki
- Priority Organization for Innovation and Excellence, Kumamoto University, Kumamoto 860-8555, Japan
| | - Robert S. Coe
- Earth Sciences Department, University of California, Santa Cruz, CA 95064, USA
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Riedo A, Rout S, Wiesendanger R, Wurz P, Leya I. EGT-A sensitive time-of-flight mass spectrometer for multielement isotope gas analysis. JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2018; 53:1036-1045. [PMID: 30069969 DOI: 10.1002/jms.4275] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
The principles of operation and figures of merit of a novel, compact (324 mm × Ø 114 mm; volume approximately 1000 cm3 ) reflectron-type time-of-flight mass spectrometer designed for simultaneous multielement isotope gas analysis is presented. The system, which consists of a pulsed electron impact ion source, is designed either to directly analyse gas samples collected and stored in a compartment or samples extracted from solids using a CW laser system (fibre-coupled diode laser, <75 W, λ = 808 ± 10 nm). In latter case, laser pulses are focussed onto the sample surface to spot sizes of approximately 400 μm in diameter that allows for direct ablation and vaporisation of solid sample material and releasing of trapped gases. A cleaning and trapping system that consists of various cold stages and getters is used before the gas enters the mass analyser. Measurements on various gases were conducted for performance evaluation, ranging from standard gases (Ar, Kr, and Xe) to trapped gases extracted from a sample of the Millbillillie meteorite. At optimised instrument settings, mass spectrometric measurements can be conducted with a mass resolution m/∆m of up to approximately 1200 (16 O and CH4 can be resolved), with a dynamic range of approximately 6 orders of magnitude and a mass calibration accuracy of approximately 100 ppm. The high detection sensitivity of the system allows the detection of gas species at partial pressures down to the low 10-16 mbar level (corresponding to <10 particles/cm3 at standard temperature and pressure, including an ion transmission of approximately 80%). Measurements using standard gases demonstrated that the isotope ratios for a given element can be measured with an accuracy at the per mill level (relative to terrestrial values). Measurements of Ar extracted from the meteorite Millbillillie gave a 36 Ar/38 Ar ratio of approximately 1.6, which is in good agreement with literature values.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Riedo
- Sackler Laboratory for Astrophysics, Leiden Observatory, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
- Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Surya Rout
- Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Reto Wiesendanger
- Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wurz
- Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Ingo Leya
- Space Research and Planetary Sciences, Physics Institute, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
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Dwyer KJ, Kim HS, Simons DS, Pomeroy JM. Temperature dependent 29Si incorporation during deposition of highly enriched 28Si films. PHYSICAL REVIEW MATERIALS 2017; 1:064603. [PMID: 29354799 PMCID: PMC5772909 DOI: 10.1103/physrevmaterials.1.064603] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
In this study, we examine the mechanisms leading to 29Si incorporation into highly enriched 28Si films deposited by hyperthermal ion beams at elevated temperatures in the dilute presence of natural abundance silane (SiH4) gas. Enriched 28Si is a critical material in the development of quantum information devices because 28Si is free of nuclear spins that cause decoherence in a quantum system. We deposit epitaxial thin films of 28Si enriched in situ beyond 99.99998 % 28Si onto Si(100) using an ion beam deposition system and seek to develop the ability to systematically vary the enrichment and measure the impact on quantum coherence. We use secondary ion mass spectrometry to measure the residual 29Si isotope fraction in enriched samples deposited from ≈ 250 °C up to 800 °C. The 29Si isotope fraction is found to increase from < 1 × 10-6 at the lower temperatures, up to > 4 × 10-6 at around 800 °C. From these data, we estimate the temperature dependence of the incorporation fraction, s, of SiH4, which increases sharply from about 2.9 × 10-4 at 500 °C to 2.3 × 10-2 at 800 °C. We determine an activation energy of 1.00(8) eV associated with the abrupt increase in incorporation and conclude that below 500 °C, a temperature independent mechanism such as activation from ion collisions with adsorbed SiH4 molecules is the primary incorporation mechanism. Direct incorporation from the adsorbed state is found to be minimal.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. J. Dwyer
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8423, USA
| | - H. S. Kim
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20740, USA
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8423, USA
| | - D. S. Simons
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8371, USA
| | - J. M. Pomeroy
- National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899-8423, USA
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7
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Tan BC, Lim YS, Lau SE. Proteomics in commercial crops: An overview. J Proteomics 2017; 169:176-188. [PMID: 28546092 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2017.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2016] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 05/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Proteomics is a rapidly growing area of biological research that is positively affecting plant science. Recent advances in proteomic technology, such as mass spectrometry, can now identify a broad range of proteins and monitor their modulation during plant growth and development, as well as during responses to abiotic and biotic stresses. In this review, we highlight recent proteomic studies of commercial crops and discuss the advances in understanding of the proteomes of these crops. We anticipate that proteomic-based research will continue to expand and contribute to crop improvement. SIGNIFICANCE Plant proteomics study is a rapidly growing area of biological research that is positively impacting plant science. With the recent advances in new technologies, proteomics not only allows us to comprehensively analyses crop proteins, but also help us to understand the functions of the genes. In this review, we highlighted recent proteomic studies in commercial crops and updated the advances in our understanding of the proteomes of these crops. We believe that proteomic-based research will continue to grow and contribute to the improvement of crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Boon Chin Tan
- Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Yin Sze Lim
- School of Biosciences, Faculty of Science, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus, Jalan Broga, 43500 Semenyih, Selangor, Malaysia
| | - Su-Ee Lau
- Centre for Research in Biotechnology for Agriculture, University of Malaya, Lembah Pantai, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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8
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Pröfrock D. Coupling Techniques and Orthogonal Combination of Mass Spectrometric Techniques. Metallomics 2016. [DOI: 10.1002/9783527694907.ch2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Pröfrock
- Helmholtz-Zentrum Geesthacht, Centre for Materials and Coastal Research; Department Marine Bioanalytical Chemistry, Institute of Coastal Research/Biogeochemistry in Coastal Seas; Max-Planck Str.1 21502 Geesthacht Germany
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9
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Tulej M, Neubeck A, Ivarsson M, Riedo A, Neuland MB, Meyer S, Wurz P. Chemical Composition of Micrometer-Sized Filaments in an Aragonite Host by a Miniature Laser Ablation/Ionization Mass Spectrometer. ASTROBIOLOGY 2015; 15:669-682. [PMID: 26247475 DOI: 10.1089/ast.2015.1304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Detection of extraterrestrial life is an ongoing goal in space exploration, and there is a need for advanced instruments and methods for the detection of signatures of life based on chemical and isotopic composition. Here, we present the first investigation of chemical composition of putative microfossils in natural samples using a miniature laser ablation/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometer (LMS). The studies were conducted with high lateral (∼15 μm) and vertical (∼20-200 nm) resolution. The primary aim of the study was to investigate the instrument performance on micrometer-sized samples both in terms of isotope abundance and element composition. The following objectives had to be achieved: (1) Consider the detection and calculation of single stable isotope ratios in natural rock samples with techniques compatible with their employment of space instrumentation for biomarker detection in future planetary missions. (2) Achieve a highly accurate chemical compositional map of rock samples with embedded structures at the micrometer scale in which the rock matrix is easily distinguished from the micrometer structures. Our results indicate that chemical mapping of strongly heterogeneous rock samples can be obtained with a high accuracy, whereas the requirements for isotope ratios need to be improved to reach sufficiently large signal-to-noise ratio (SNR).
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Tulej
- 1 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, University of Bern , Bern, Switzerland
| | - Anna Neubeck
- 2 Department of Geological Sciences, Stockholm University , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Magnus Ivarsson
- 3 Department of Palaeobiology and Nordic Centre for Earth Evolution (NordCEE), Swedish Museum of Natural History , Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Andreas Riedo
- 1 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, University of Bern , Bern, Switzerland
| | - Maike B Neuland
- 1 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, University of Bern , Bern, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Meyer
- 1 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, University of Bern , Bern, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wurz
- 1 Physics Institute, Space Research and Planetary Sciences, University of Bern , Bern, Switzerland
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10
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Gundlach-Graham A, Burger M, Allner S, Schwarz G, Wang HAO, Gyr L, Grolimund D, Hattendorf B, Günther D. High-Speed, High-Resolution, Multielemental Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry Imaging: Part I. Instrumentation and Two-Dimensional Imaging of Geological Samples. Anal Chem 2015; 87:8250-8. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b01196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Marcel Burger
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Steffen Allner
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Gunnar Schwarz
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hao A. O. Wang
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Luzia Gyr
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Grolimund
- microXAS
Beamline Project, Swiss Light Source, Paul Scherrer Institute, 5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
| | - Bodo Hattendorf
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Detlef Günther
- Laboratory
of Inorganic Chemistry, ETH Zurich, Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 1, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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11
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Hou H, Chan GCY, Mao X, Zorba V, Zheng R, Russo RE. Femtosecond Laser Ablation Molecular Isotopic Spectrometry for Zirconium Isotope Analysis. Anal Chem 2015; 87:4788-96. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.5b00056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Huaming Hou
- Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
- Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, People’s Republic of China
| | - George C.-Y. Chan
- Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Xianglei Mao
- Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Vassilia Zorba
- Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
| | - Ronger Zheng
- Ocean University of China, Qingdao, 266100, People’s Republic of China
| | - Richard E. Russo
- Lawrence Berkeley
National Laboratory, Berkeley, California 94720, United States
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Denton JS, Murrell MT, Goldstein SJ, Nunn AJ, Amato RS, Hinrichs KA. Evaluation of New Geological Reference Materials for Uranium-Series Measurements: Chinese Geological Standard Glasses (CGSG) and Macusanite Obsidian. Anal Chem 2013; 85:9975-81. [DOI: 10.1021/ac4017117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- J. S. Denton
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - M. T. Murrell
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - S. J. Goldstein
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - A. J. Nunn
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - R. S. Amato
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
| | - K. A. Hinrichs
- Nuclear and Radiochemistry
(C-NR), Los Alamos National Laboratory, MS J514, PO Box 1663, Los Alamos, New Mexico 87545, United States
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