High resolution spectroscopy and spectral simulation of C2 using degenerate four-wave mixing

Rovibrational investigation of a new high-lying 0u + state of Cu2 by using two-color resonant four-wave-mixing spectroscopy

A highly excited electronic state of dicopper is observed and characterized for the first time. The [39.6]0_u ⁺-X¹Σ_g ⁺(0_g ⁺) system is measured at rotational resolution by using degenerate and two-color resonant four-wave-mixing, as well as laser induced fluorescence spectroscopy. Double-resonance experiments are performed by labeling selected rotational levels of the ground state by tuning the probe laser wavelength to transitions in the well-known (1-0) band of the B0_u ⁺-X¹Σ_g ⁺(0_g ⁺) electronic system. Spectra obtained by scans of the pump laser in the UV wavelength range were then assigned unambiguously by the stringent double-resonance selection rules. The absence of a Q-band suggests a parallel transition (ΔΩ = 0) and determines the term symbol of the state as 0_u ⁺ in Hund's case (c) notation. The equilibrium constants for ⁶³Cu₂ are T_e = 39 559.921(92) cm^-1, ω_e = 277.70(14) cm^-1, B_e = 0.104 942(66) cm^-1, and r_e = 2.2595(11) Å. These findings are supported by high-level ab initio calculations at the MRCI+Q level, which clearly identifies this state as resulting from a 4p ← 3d transition. In addition, three dark perturber states are found in the v = 1 and v = 2 vibrational levels of the new state. A deperturbation analysis characterizes the interaction and rationalizes the anomalous dips in the excitation spectrum of the [39.6]0_u ⁺-X¹Σ_g ⁺(0_g ⁺) system.

The dicarbon bonding puzzle viewed with photoelectron imaging

Bonding in the ground state of C\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${}_{2}$$\end{document}2 is still a matter of controversy, as reasonable arguments may be made for a dicarbon bond order of \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$2$$\end{document}2, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$3$$\end{document}3, or \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$4$$\end{document}4. Here we report on photoelectron spectra of the C\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${}_{2}^{-}$$\end{document}2− anion, measured at a range of wavelengths using a high-resolution photoelectron imaging spectrometer, which reveal both the ground \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${X}^{1}{\Sigma}_{\mathrm{g}}^{+}$$\end{document}X1Σg+ and first-excited \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${a}^{3}{\Pi}_{{\mathrm{u}}}$$\end{document}a3Πu electronic states. These measurements yield electron angular anisotropies that identify the character of two orbitals: the diffuse detachment orbital of the anion and the highest occupied molecular orbital of the neutral. This work indicates that electron detachment occurs from predominantly \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$s$$\end{document}s-like (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$3{\sigma}_{\mathrm{g}}$$\end{document}3σg) and \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$p$$\end{document}p-like (\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$1{\pi }_{{\mathrm{u}}}$$\end{document}1πu) orbitals, respectively, which is inconsistent with the predictions required for the high bond-order models of strongly \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$sp$$\end{document}sp-mixed orbitals. This result suggests that the dominant contribution to the dicarbon bonding involves a double-bonded configuration, with 2\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\pi$$\end{document}π bonds and no accompanying \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\sigma$$\end{document}σ bond.

In spite of its apparent simplicity, the dicarbon molecule has a bonding structure which is matter of debate. Here the authors measure high-resolution spectra of the \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$${{\mathrm{C}}}_{2}$$\end{document}C2 anion by photoelectron imaging, revealing a bonding configuration dominated by a double \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\pi$$\end{document}π bond, with no accompanying \documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \usepackage{amsmath} \usepackage{wasysym} \usepackage{amsfonts} \usepackage{amssymb} \usepackage{amsbsy} \usepackage{mathrsfs} \usepackage{upgreek} \setlength{\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \begin{document}$$\sigma$$\end{document}σ bond.

Mid-Infrared Polarization Spectroscopy Measurements of Species Concentrations and Temperature in a Low-Pressure Flame

We demonstrate quantitative measurements of methane (CH₄) mole fractions in a low-pressure fuel-rich premixed dimethyl ether/oxygen/argon flat flame (Φ = 1.87, 37 mbar) using mid-infrared (IR) polarization spectroscopy (IRPS). Non-intrusive in situ detection of CH₄, acetylene (C₂H₂), and ethane (C₂H₆) in the flame was realized by probing the fundamental asymmetric C-H stretching vibration bands in the respective molecules in the spectral range 2970-3340 cm^-1. The flame was stabilized on a McKenna-type porous plug burner hosted in a low-pressure chamber. The temperature at different heights above the burner (HAB) was measured from the line ratio of temperature-sensitive H₂O spectral lines recorded using IRPS. Quantitative measurements of CH₄ mole fractions at different HAB in the flame were realized by a calibration measurement in a low-pressure gas flow of N₂ with a small admixture of known amount of CH₄. A comprehensive study of the collision effects on the IRPS signal was performed in order to quantify the flame measurement. The concentration and temperature measurements were found to agree reasonably well with simulations using Chemkin. These measurements prove the potential of IRPS as a sensitive, non-intrusive, in situ technique in low pressure flames.

A combined crossed molecular beams and computational study on the formation of distinct resonantly stabilized C5H3 radicals via chemically activated C5H4 and C6H6 intermediates

The crossed molecular beams technique was utilized to explore the formation of three isomers of resonantly stabilized (C5H3) radicals along with their d2-substituted counterparts via the bimolecular reactions of singlet/triplet dicarbon [C2(X1Σ+g/a3Πu)] with methylacetylene [CH3CCH(X1A1)], d3-methylacetylene [CD3CCH(X1A1)], and 1-butyne [C2H5CCH(X1A')] at collision energies up to 26 kJ mol-1via chemically activated singlet/triplet C5H4/C5D3H and C6H6 intermediates. These studies exploit a newly developed supersonic dicarbon [C2(X1Σ+g/a3Πu)] beam generated via photolysis of tetrachloroethylene [C2Cl4(X1Ag)] by excluding interference from carbon atoms, which represent the dominating (interfering) species in ablation-based dicarbon sources. We evaluated the performance of the dicarbon [C2(X1Σ+g/a3Πu)] beam in reactions with methylacetylene [CH3CCH(X1A1)] and d3-methylacetylene [CD3CCH(X1A1)]; the investigations demonstrate that the reaction dynamics match previous studies in our laboratory utilizing ablation-based dicarbon sources involving the synthesis of 1,4-pentadiynyl-3 [HCCCHCCH(X2B1)] and 2,4-pentadiynyl-1 [H2CCCCCH(X2B1)] radicals via hydrogen (deuterium) atom elimination. Considering the C2(X1Σ+g/a3Πu)-1-butyne [C2H5CCH(X1A')] reaction, the hitherto elusive methyl-loss pathway was detected. This channel forms the previously unknown resonantly stabilized penta-1-yn-3,4-dienyl-1 [H2CCCHCC(X2A)] radical along with the methyl radical [CH3(X2A2'')] and is open exclusively on the triplet surface with an overall reaction energy of -86 ± 10 kJ mol-1. The preferred reaction pathways proceed first by barrierless addition of triplet dicarbon to the π-electronic system of 1-butyne, either to both acetylenic carbon atoms or to the sterically more accessible carbon atom, to form the methyl-bearing triplet C6H6 intermediates [i41b] and [i81b], respectively, with the latter decomposing via a tight exit transition state to penta-1-yn-3,4-dienyl-1 [(H2CCCHCC(X2A)] plus the methyl radical [CH3(X2A2'')]. The successful unraveling of this methyl-loss channel - through collaborative experimental and computational efforts - underscores the viability of the photolytically generated dicarbon beam as an unprecedented tool to access reaction dynamics underlying the formation of resonantly stabilized free radicals (RSFR) that are vital to molecular mass growth processes that ultimately lead to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).

Microwave Plasma-Activated Chemical Vapor Deposition of Nitrogen-Doped Diamond. II: CH4/N2/H2 Plasmas

We report a combined experimental and modeling study of microwave-activated dilute CH₄/N₂/H₂ plasmas, as used for chemical vapor deposition (CVD) of diamond, under very similar conditions to previous studies of CH₄/H₂, CH₄/H₂/Ar, and N₂/H₂ gas mixtures. Using cavity ring-down spectroscopy, absolute column densities of CH(X, v = 0), CN(X, v = 0), and NH(X, v = 0) radicals in the hot plasma have been determined as functions of height, z, source gas mixing ratio, total gas pressure, p, and input power, P. Optical emission spectroscopy has been used to investigate, with respect to the same variables, the relative number densities of electronically excited species, namely, H atoms, CH, C₂, CN, and NH radicals and triplet N₂ molecules. The measurements have been reproduced and rationalized from first-principles by 2-D (r, z) coupled kinetic and transport modeling, and comparison between experiment and simulation has afforded a detailed understanding of C/N/H plasma-chemical reactivity and variations with process conditions and with location within the reactor. The experimentally validated simulations have been extended to much lower N₂ input fractions and higher microwave powers than were probed experimentally, providing predictions for the gas-phase chemistry adjacent to the diamond surface and its variation across a wide range of conditions employed in practical diamond-growing CVD processes. The strongly bound N₂ molecule is very resistant to dissociation at the input MW powers and pressures prevailing in typical diamond CVD reactors, but its chemical reactivity is boosted through energy pooling in its lowest-lying (metastable) triplet state and subsequent reactions with H atoms. For a CH₄ input mole fraction of 4%, with N₂ present at 1-6000 ppm, at pressure p = 150 Torr, and with applied microwave power P = 1.5 kW, the near-substrate gas-phase N atom concentration, [N]_ns, scales linearly with the N₂ input mole fraction and exceeds the concentrations [NH]_ns, [NH₂]_ns, and [CN]_ns of other reactive nitrogen-containing species by up to an order of magnitude. The ratio [N]_ns/[CH₃]_ns scales proportionally with (but is 10²-10³ times smaller than) the ratio of the N₂ to CH₄ input mole fractions for the given values of p and P, but [N]_ns/[CN]_ns decreases (and thus the potential importance of CN in contributing to N-doped diamond growth increases) as p and P increase. Possible insights regarding the well-documented effects of trace N₂ additions on the growth rates and morphologies of diamond films formed by CVD using MW-activated CH₄/H₂ gas mixtures are briefly considered.

Puzzles in bonding and spectroscopy: the case of dicarbon

The unstable molecule C₂ has been of interest since its identification as the source of the "Swan band" features observable in the spectra offlames, carbon arcs, white dwarf stars, and comets, and it continues to serve as a focal point for experimental and theoretical discovery. Recent spectroscopic work has identified a quintet state of the molecule for the first time, while new insights into the bond order of C₂ in its ground state have been provided by sophisticated computational methods based on valence bond theory. This article gives a review of spectroscopic and computational work on C₂ including both historical background and the most recent discoveries.

Shedding light on a dark state: the energetically lowest quintet state of C2

In this work we present a deperturbation study of the d (3)Π(g), v=6 state of C(2) by double-resonant four-wave mixing spectroscopy. Accurate line positions of perturbed transitions are unambiguously assigned by intermediate level labeling. In addition, extra lines are accessible by taking advantage of the sensitivity and high dynamic range of the technique. These weak spectral features originate from nearby-lying dark states that gain transition strength through the perturbation process. The deperturbation analysis of the complex spectral region in the (6,5) and (6,4) bands of the Swan system (d(3)Π(g)-a (3)Π(u)) unveils the presence of the energetically lowest high-spin state of C(2) in the vicinity of the d (3)Π(g), v=6 state. The term energy curves of the three spin components of the d state cross the five terms of the 1 (5)Π(g) state at rotational quantum numbers N ≤ 11. The spectral complexity for transitions to the v = 6 level of d (3)Π(g) state is further enhanced by an additional perturbation at N = 19 and 21 owing to the b (3)Σ(g)(-), v=19 state. The spectroscopic characterization of both dark states is accessible by the measurement of 122 "window" levels. A global fit of the positions to a conventional Hamiltonian for a linear diatomic molecule yields accurate molecular constants for the quintet and triplet perturber states for the first time. In addition, parameters for the spin-orbit and L-uncoupling interaction between the electronic levels are determined. The detailed deperturbation study unravels major issues of the so-called high-pressure bands of C(2). The anomalous nonthermal emission initially observed by Fowler in 1910 [Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 70, 484 (1910)] and later observed in numerous experimental environments are rationalized by taking into account "gateway" states, i.e., rotational levels of the d (3)Π(g), v=6 state that exhibit significant (5)Π(g) character through which all population flows from one electronic state to the other.

Energy Transfer in the d3Πg−a3Πu (0−0) Swan Bands of C2: Implications for Quantitative Measurements

Energy transfer effects on dicarbon (C2) d3Pi(g) <-- a3Pi(u) laser-induced fluorescence (LIF) spectra in fuel-rich acetylene atmospheric-pressure flames have been studied using a combination of two different two-dimensional techniques. Measurements using a picosecond laser system in conjunction with a streak camera allowed determination of typical fluorescence lifetimes of levels in the d state and of population changes introduced by rotational energy transfer (RET) and by state-dependent quenching. Excitation-emission spectroscopy yielded two-dimensional maps containing all excitation and all emission spectra in the spectral ranges between 19 340 and 20 150 cm(-1) (excitation) and from 546 to 573 nm (emission) and allowed unambiguous assignment of all transitions in this spectral region. Our measurements show a comparatively long quenching lifetime (around 2 ns) and dominant effects of energy transfer on shape and intensity of the acquired spectra (90% of the fluorescence stems from levels populated by ET). A pronounced dependence of the total RET on the quantum number of the initially excited state is observed. Vibrational energy transfer (VET) is significantly weaker (only 5% contribution for excitation in the v' = 1 level). Implications for quantitative concentration measurements are discussed, and exemplary spatially resolved profiles in a well-characterized low-pressure propene flame are presented.

Peak Separation and Sorting by Coherent 2D Resonance Raman Spectroscopy

The ability to separate and sort peaks is explored using a new coherent two-dimensional form of resonance Raman spectroscopy. This experimental technique distributes normally congested rotational-vibrational peaks along a series of curved lines according to vibrational sequence, rotational quantum number, and selection rule. Each line consists of rotational-vibrational peaks that have the same vibrational sequence and the same value for DeltaJ, distributed in order by rotational quantum number. For diatomic molecules, these lines originate from points where they initially travel in opposite or orthogonal directions in two-dimensional space, which helps facilitate the separation between lines. Simulations and experimental results on C2 in a flame confirm the ability to separate and sort these normally congested rotational-vibrational peaks. This method appears to provide a solution to the long-standing problems of spectral congestion and disorder in gas-phase electronic spectra.

Electronic spectroscopy of the nonlinear carbon chains C4H4+ and C8H4+

The electronic spectrum of a nonlinear carbon chain radical C4H4+ was observed after mass-selective deposition in a 6 K neon matrix. The corresponding gas-phase spectra of C4H4+ and C4D4+ have been observed in the 512 to 513 nm region and at 710 nm for C8H4+. These were detected in direct absorption by cavity ringdown spectroscopy through a supersonic planar discharge. The electronic transition energies of these nonlinear carbon chain radicals correlate well with those of the polyacetylene cations HCnH+ (n = 4, 6, 8). The observed profiles are reproduced with rotational constants obtained by ab initio geometry optimizations and extrapolation between the ground and excited electronic states. Key words: nonlinear carbon chain, carbon cation, electronic transition, diffuse interstellar bands, molecular structure.