1
|
Nie J, Lou S, Pollet AMAO, van Vegchel M, Bouten CVC, den Toonder JMJ. A Cell Pre-Wrapping Seeding Technique for Hydrogel-Based Tubular Organ-On-A-Chip. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2024; 11:e2400970. [PMID: 38872259 PMCID: PMC11321624 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202400970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2024] [Revised: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
Organ-on-a-chip (OOC) models based on microfluidic technology are increasingly used to obtain mechanistic insight into (patho)physiological processes in humans, and they hold great promise for application in drug development and regenerative medicine. Despite significant progress in OOC development, several limitations of conventional microfluidic devices pose challenges. First, most microfluidic systems have rectangular cross sections and flat walls, and therefore tubular/ curved structures, like blood vessels and nephrons, are not well represented. Second, polymers used as base materials for microfluidic devices are much stiffer than in vivo extracellular matrix (ECM). Finally, in current cell seeding methods, challenges exist regarding precise control over cell seeding location, unreachable spaces due to flow resistances, and restricted dimensions/geometries. To address these limitations, an alternative cell seeding technique and a corresponding workflow is introduced to create circular cross-sectioned tubular OOC models by pre-wrapping cells around sacrificial fiber templates. As a proof of concept, a perfusable renal proximal tubule-on-a-chip is demonstrated with a diameter as small as 50 µm, cellular tubular structures with branches and curvature, and a preliminary vascular-renal tubule interaction model. The cell pre-wrapping seeding technique promises to enable the construction of diverse physiological/pathological models, providing tubular OOC systems for mechanistic investigations and drug development.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jing Nie
- Microsystems Research SectionDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS)Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Soft Tissue Engineering & Mechanobiology Research SectionDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| | - Sha Lou
- Microsystems Research SectionDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS)Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Soft Tissue Engineering & Mechanobiology Research SectionDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| | - Andreas M. A. O. Pollet
- Microsystems Research SectionDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS)Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| | - Manon van Vegchel
- Microsystems Research SectionDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Soft Tissue Engineering & Mechanobiology Research SectionDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| | - Carlijn V. C. Bouten
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS)Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Soft Tissue Engineering & Mechanobiology Research SectionDepartment of Biomedical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| | - Jaap M. J. den Toonder
- Microsystems Research SectionDepartment of Mechanical EngineeringEindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
- Institute for Complex Molecular Systems (ICMS)Eindhoven University of TechnologyEindhoven5600 MBThe Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Filippi M, Buchner T, Yasa O, Weirich S, Katzschmann RK. Microfluidic Tissue Engineering and Bio-Actuation. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2108427. [PMID: 35194852 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202108427] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2021] [Revised: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Bio-hybrid technologies aim to replicate the unique capabilities of biological systems that could surpass advanced artificial technologies. Soft bio-hybrid robots consist of synthetic and living materials and have the potential to self-assemble, regenerate, work autonomously, and interact safely with other species and the environment. Cells require a sufficient exchange of nutrients and gases, which is guaranteed by convection and diffusive transport through liquid media. The functional development and long-term survival of biological tissues in vitro can be improved by dynamic flow culture, but only microfluidic flow control can develop tissue with fine structuring and regulation at the microscale. Full control of tissue growth at the microscale will eventually lead to functional macroscale constructs, which are needed as the biological component of soft bio-hybrid technologies. This review summarizes recent progress in microfluidic techniques to engineer biological tissues, focusing on the use of muscle cells for robotic bio-actuation. Moreover, the instances in which bio-actuation technologies greatly benefit from fusion with microfluidics are highlighted, which include: the microfabrication of matrices, biomimicry of cell microenvironments, tissue maturation, perfusion, and vascularization.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam Filippi
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Buchner
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Oncay Yasa
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Stefan Weirich
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| | - Robert K Katzschmann
- Soft Robotics Laboratory, ETH Zurich, Tannenstrasse 3, Zurich, 8092, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Cho M, Park JK. Fabrication of a Perfusable 3D In Vitro Artery-Mimicking Multichannel System for Artery Disease Models. ACS Biomater Sci Eng 2020; 6:5326-5336. [DOI: 10.1021/acsbiomaterials.0c00748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Minkyung Cho
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - Je-Kyun Park
- Department of Bio and Brain Engineering, Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST), 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
- KAIST Institute for Health Science and Technology, 291 Daehak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon 34141, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Takeuchi M, Iriguchi M, Hattori M, Kim E, Ichikawa A, Hasegawa Y, Huang Q, Fukuda T. Magnetic self-assembly of toroidal hepatic microstructures for micro-tissue fabrication. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 15:055001. [PMID: 32224520 DOI: 10.1088/1748-605x/ab8487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we developed a procedure for assembling hepatic microstructures into tube shapes using magnetic self-assembly for in vitro 3D micro-tissue fabrication. To this end, biocompatible hydrogels, which have a toroidal shape, were made using the micro-patterned electrodeposition method. Ferrite particles were used to coat the fabricated toroidal hydrogel microcapsules using a poly-L-lysine membrane. The microcapsules were then magnetized with a 3 T magnetic field, and assembled using a magnetic self-assembly process. During electrodeposition, hepatic cells were trapped inside the microcapsules, and they were cultured to construct tissue-like structures. The magnetized toroidal microstructures then automatically assembled to form tube structures. Shaking was used to enhance the assembly process, and the shaking speed was experimentally optimized to achieve the high-speed assembly of longer tube structures. The flow velocity inside the dish during shaking was measured by particle image velocimetry. Hepatic functions were evaluated to check for side-effects of the magnetized ferrite particles on the microstructures. Collectively, our findings indicated that the developed method can achieve the high-speed assembly of a large number of microstructures to form tissue-like hepatic structures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaru Takeuchi
- Department of Micro-Nano Mechanical Science and Engineering, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Japan
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
On-Chip Fabrication of Cell-Attached Microstructures using Photo-Cross-Linkable Biodegradable Hydrogel. J Funct Biomater 2020; 11:jfb11010018. [PMID: 32183414 PMCID: PMC7151615 DOI: 10.3390/jfb11010018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/09/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
We developed a procedure for fabricating movable biological cell structures using biodegradable materials on a microfluidic chip. A photo-cross-linkable biodegradable hydrogel gelatin methacrylate (GelMA) was used to fabricate arbitrary microstructure shapes under a microscope using patterned ultraviolet light. The GelMA microstructures were movable inside the microfluidic channel after applying a hydrophobic coating material. The fabricated microstructures were self-assembled inside the microfluidic chip using our method of fluid forcing. The synthesis procedure of GelMA was optimized by changing the dialysis temperature, which kept the GelMA at a suitable pH for cell culture. RLC-18 rat liver cells (Riken BioResource Research Center, Tsukuba, Japan) were cultured inside the GelMA and on the GelMA microstructures to check cell growth. The cells were then stretched for 1 day in the cell culture and grew well on the GelMA microstructures. However, they did not grow well inside the GelMA microstructures. The GelMA microstructures were partially dissolved after 4 days of cell culture because of their biodegradability after the cells were placed on the microstructures. The results indicated that the proposed procedure used to fabricate cell structures using GelMA can be used as a building block to assemble three-dimensional tissue-like cell structures in vitro inside microfluidic devices.
Collapse
|
6
|
Fukushi M, Kinoshita K, Yamada M, Yajima Y, Utoh R, Seki M. Formation of pressurizable hydrogel-based vascular tissue models by selective gelation in composite PDMS channels. RSC Adv 2019; 9:9136-9144. [PMID: 35517655 PMCID: PMC9062067 DOI: 10.1039/c9ra00257j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2019] [Accepted: 03/08/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Vascular tissue models created in vitro are of great utility in the biomedical research field, but versatile, facile strategies are still under development. In this study, we proposed a new approach to prepare vascular tissue models in PDMS-based composite channel structures embedded with barium salt powders. When a cell-containing hydrogel precursor solution was continuously pumped in the channel, the precursor solution in the vicinity of the channel wall was selectively gelled because of the barium ions as the gelation agent supplied to the flow. Based on this concept, we were able to prepare vascular tissue models, with diameters of 1–2 mm and with tunable morphologies, composed of smooth muscle cells in the hydrogel matrix and endothelial cells on the lumen. Perfusion culture was successfully performed under a pressurized condition of ∼120 mmHg. The presented platform is potentially useful for creating vascular tissue models that reproduce the physical and morphological characteristics similar to those of vascular tissues in vivo. A new approach for the preparation of vascular tissue models in PDMS-based composite channel structures embedded with barium salt powders.![]()
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mayu Fukushi
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| | - Keita Kinoshita
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| | - Masumi Yamada
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| | - Yuya Yajima
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| | - Rie Utoh
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| | - Minoru Seki
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology, Graduate School of Engineering, Chiba University 1-33 Yayoi-cho, Inage-ku 263-8522 Japan +81-43-290-3398
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Masuda T, Ukiki M, Yamagishi Y, Matsusaki M, Akashi M, Yokoyama U, Arai F. Fabrication of engineered tubular tissue for small blood vessels via three-dimensional cellular assembly and organization ex vivo. J Biotechnol 2018; 276-277:46-53. [PMID: 29689281 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbiotec.2018.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 03/24/2018] [Accepted: 04/09/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Although there is a great need for suitable vascular replacements in clinical practice, much progress needs to be made toward the development of a fully functional tissue-engineered construct. We propose a fabrication method of engineered tubular tissue for small blood vessels via a layer-by-layer cellular assembly technique using mouse smooth muscle cells, the construction of a poly-(l-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) (PLCL) scaffold, and integration in a microfluidic perfusion culture system. The cylindrical PLCL scaffold is incised, expanded, and its surface is laminated with the cell layers. The construct confirms into tubular structures due to residual stress imposed by the cylindrical PLCL scaffold. The perfusion culture system allows simulation of static, perfusion (laminar flow), and perfusion with pulsatile pressure (Pulsatile flow) conditions in which mimicking the in vivo environments. The aim of this evaluation was to determine whether fabricated tubular tissue models developed their mechanical properties. The cellular response to hemodynamic stimulus imposed by the dynamic culture system is monitored through expression analysis of fibrillin-1 and fibrillin-2, elastin and smooth muscle myosin heavy chains isoforms transcription factors, which play an important role in tissue elastogenesis. Among the available materials for small blood vessel construction, these cellular hybrid vascular scaffolds hold much potential due to controllability of the mechanical properties of synthetic polymers and biocompatibility of integrated cellular components.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Taisuke Masuda
- Department of Micro-Nano Mechanical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8603, Japan.
| | - Mitsuhiro Ukiki
- Department of Micro-Nano Mechanical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8603, Japan
| | - Yuka Yamagishi
- Department of Micro-Nano Mechanical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8603, Japan
| | - Michiya Matsusaki
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Akashi
- Building Block Science, Graduate School of Frontier Bioscience, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Utako Yokoyama
- Cardiovascular Research Institute, Yokohama City University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Fumihito Arai
- Department of Micro-Nano Mechanical Science and Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University, 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya, 464-8603, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Zhu XD, Chu J, Wang YH. Advances in Microfluidics Applied to Single Cell Operation. Biotechnol J 2018; 13. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201700416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2017] [Revised: 11/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Xu-Dong Zhu
- National Engineering Centre for Biotechnology (Shanghai); College of Biotechnology; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Meilong Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Ju Chu
- National Engineering Centre for Biotechnology (Shanghai); College of Biotechnology; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Meilong Road Shanghai 200237 China
| | - Yong-Hong Wang
- National Engineering Centre for Biotechnology (Shanghai); College of Biotechnology; East China University of Science and Technology; 130 Meilong Road Shanghai 200237 China
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Antoine EE, Cornat FP, Barakat AI. The stentable in vitro artery: an instrumented platform for endovascular device development and optimization. J R Soc Interface 2017; 13:rsif.2016.0834. [PMID: 28003530 DOI: 10.1098/rsif.2016.0834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2016] [Accepted: 11/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Although vascular disease is a leading cause of mortality, in vitro tools for controlled, quantitative studies of vascular biological processes in an environment that reflects physiological complexity remain limited. We developed a novel in vitro artery that exhibits a number of unique features distinguishing it from tissue-engineered or organ-on-a-chip constructs, most notably that it allows deployment of endovascular devices including stents, quantitative real-time tracking of cellular responses and detailed measurement of flow velocity and lumenal shear stress using particle image velocimetry. The wall of the stentable in vitro artery consists of an annular collagen hydrogel containing smooth muscle cells (SMCs) and whose lumenal surface is lined with a monolayer of endothelial cells (ECs). The system has in vivo dimensions and physiological flow conditions and allows automated high-resolution live imaging of both SMCs and ECs. To demonstrate proof-of-concept, we imaged and quantified EC wound healing, SMC motility and altered shear stresses on the endothelium after deployment of a coronary stent. The stentable in vitro artery provides a unique platform suited for a broad array of research applications. Wide-scale adoption of this system promises to enhance our understanding of important biological events affecting endovascular device performance and to reduce dependence on animal studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth E Antoine
- Hydrodynamics Laboratory (LadHyX), Ecole Polytechnique, Route de Saclay, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - François P Cornat
- Hydrodynamics Laboratory (LadHyX), Ecole Polytechnique, Route de Saclay, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| | - Abdul I Barakat
- Hydrodynamics Laboratory (LadHyX), Ecole Polytechnique, Route de Saclay, 91128 Palaiseau, France
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Takeuchi M, Oya T, Ichikawa A, Hasegawa A, Nakajima M, Hasegawa Y, Fukuda T. Multi-Layered Channel Patterning by Local Heating of Hydrogels. IEEE Robot Autom Lett 2017. [DOI: 10.1109/lra.2017.2655625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
|
11
|
Kinoshita K, Iwase M, Yamada M, Yajima Y, Seki M. Fabrication of multilayered vascular tissues using microfluidic agarose hydrogel platforms. Biotechnol J 2016; 11:1415-1423. [DOI: 10.1002/biot.201600083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2016] [Revised: 08/17/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Keita Kinoshita
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology; Graduate School of Engineering; Chiba Japan
| | - Masaki Iwase
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology; Graduate School of Engineering; Chiba Japan
| | - Masumi Yamada
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology; Graduate School of Engineering; Chiba Japan
| | - Yuya Yajima
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology; Graduate School of Engineering; Chiba Japan
| | - Minoru Seki
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Biotechnology; Graduate School of Engineering; Chiba Japan
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Yamagishi Y, Masuda T, Matsusaki M, Akashi M, Yokoyama U, Arai F. Microfluidic perfusion culture system for multilayer artery tissue models. BIOMICROFLUIDICS 2014; 8:064113. [PMID: 25553190 PMCID: PMC4257967 DOI: 10.1063/1.4903210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2014] [Accepted: 11/19/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
We described an assembly technique and perfusion culture system for constructing artery tissue models. This technique differed from previous studies in that it does not require a solid biodegradable scaffold; therefore, using sheet-like tissues, this technique allowed the facile fabrication of tubular tissues can be used as model. The fabricated artery tissue models had a multilayer structure. The assembly technique and perfusion culture system were applicable to many different sizes of fabricated arteries. The shape of the fabricated artery tissue models was maintained by the perfusion culture system; furthermore, the system reproduced the in vivo environment and allowed mechanical stimulation of the arteries. The multilayer structure of the artery tissue model was observed using fluorescent dyes. The equivalent Young's modulus was measured by applying internal pressure to the multilayer tubular tissues. The aim of this study was to determine whether fabricated artery tissue models maintained their mechanical properties with developing. We demonstrated both the rapid fabrication of multilayer tubular tissues that can be used as model arteries and the measurement of their equivalent Young's modulus in a suitable perfusion culture environment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Yamagishi
- Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
| | - Taisuke Masuda
- Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
| | - Michiya Matsusaki
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University , 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 562-0871, Japan
| | - Mitsuru Akashi
- Department of Applied Chemistry, Graduate School of Engineering, Osaka University , 2-1 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 562-0871, Japan
| | - Utako Yokoyama
- Department of Cardiovascular Research Institute, Graduate School of Medicine, Yokohama City University , 3-9 Fukuura, Kanazawa-ku, Yokohama 236-0004, Japan
| | - Fumihito Arai
- Department of Micro-Nano Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya University , 1 Furo-cho, Chikusa-ku, Nagoya 464-8603, Japan
| |
Collapse
|