Surfactant-induced core/shell phase equilibrium in hydrogels

Utilizing a microfluidic platform to investigate drug-eluting beads: Binding and release of amphiphilic antidepressants

Drug-eluting beads made of responsive polyelectrolyte networks are used in the treatment of liver cancer. Aggregates of loaded drugs in complex with the networks dissolve upon release, causing swelling of the network. According to a recent mechanism the release and swelling rates are controlled by the mass transport of drug through a depletion layer created in the microgel. We hypothesise that the mechanism, in which the stability of the drug aggregates and the swelling properties of the network play crucial roles, offers means to control the release profile also for other drugs. To test this, we investigated the loading and release properties of amitriptyline, chlorpromazine and doxepin in polyacrylate, hyaluronate and DCbead™ microgels in a microfluidic setup. Loaded drugs could be released to a medium with physiological ionic strength and pH. The binding strength increased with decreasing critical micelle concentration of the drugs and increasing linear charge density of network chains. Microgels displayed drug-rich core/swollen shell coexistence, and swelled during release at a rate in agreement with the depletion layer mechanism, indicating its generality. The results demonstrate the potential of microgels as vehicles for amphiphilic drugs and the usefulness of the microfluidics method for in vitro studies of such systems.

Drug-Induced Phase Separation in Polyelectrolyte Microgels

Polyelectrolyte microgels may undergo volume phase transition upon loading and the release of amphiphilic molecules, a process important in drug delivery. The new phase is “born” in the outermost gel layers, whereby it grows inward as a shell with a sharp boundary to the “mother” phase (core). The swelling and collapse transitions have previously been studied with microgels in large solution volumes, where they go to completion. Our hypothesis is that the boundary between core and shell is stabilized by thermodynamic factors, and thus that collapsed and swollen phases should be able to also coexist at equilibrium. We investigated the interaction between sodium polyacrylate (PA) microgel networks (diameter: 400–850 µm) and the amphiphilic drug amitriptyline hydrochloride (AMT) in the presence of NaCl/phosphate buffer of ionic strength (I) 10 and 155 mM. We used a specially constructed microscopy cell and micromanipulators to study the size and internal morphology of single microgels equilibrated in small liquid volumes of AMT solution. To probe the distribution of AMT micelles we used the fluorescent probe rhodamine B. The amount of AMT in the microgel was determined by a spectrophotometric technique. In separate experiments we studied the binding of AMT and the distribution between different microgels in a suspension. We found that collapsed, AMT-rich, and swollen AMT-lean phases coexisted in equilibrium or as long-lived metastable states at intermediate drug loading levels. In single microgels at I = 10 mM, the collapsed phase formed after loading deviated from the core-shell configuration by forming either discrete domains near the gel boundary or a calotte shaped domain. At I = 155 mM, single microgels, initially fully collapsed, displayed a swollen shell and a collapsed core after partial release of the AMT load. Suspensions displayed a bimodal distribution of swollen and collapsed microgels. The results support the hypothesis that the boundary between collapsed and swollen phases in the same microgel is stabilized by thermodynamic factors.

Volume Transition and Phase Coexistence in Polyelectrolyte Gels Interacting with Amphiphiles and Proteins

Polyelectrolyte gels have the capacity to absorb large amounts of multivalent species of opposite charge from aqueous solutions of low ionic strength, and release them at elevated ionic strengths. The reversibility offers the possibility to switch between “storage” and “release” modes, useful in applications such as drug delivery. The review focuses on systems where so-called volume phase transitions (VPT) of the gel network take place upon the absorption and release of proteins and self-assembling amphiphiles. We discuss the background in terms of thermodynamic driving forces behind complex formation in oppositely charged mixtures, the role played by cross-links in covalent gels, and general aspects of phase coexistence in networks in relation to Gibbs’ phase rule. We also briefly discuss a gel model frequently used in papers covered by the review. After that, we review papers dealing with collapse and swelling transitions of gels in contact with solution reservoirs of macroions and surfactants. Here we describe recent progress in our understanding of the conditions required for VPT, competing mechanisms, and hysteresis effects. We then review papers addressing equilibrium aspects of core–shell phase coexistence in gels in equilibrium. Here we first discuss early observations of phase separated gels and results showing how the phases affect each other. Then follows a review of recent theoretical and experimental studies providing evidence of thermodynamically stable core–shell phase separated states, and detailed analyses of the conditions under which they exist. Finally, we describe the results from investigations of mechanisms and kinetics of the collapse/swelling transitions induced by the loading/release of proteins, surfactants, and amphiphilic drug molecules.

Drug-Eluting Polyacrylate Microgels: Loading and Release of Amitriptyline

We investigated the loading of an amphiphilic drug, amitriptyline hydrochloride (AMT), onto sodium polyacrylate hydrogels at low ionic strength and its release at high ionic strength. The purpose was to show how the self-assembling properties of the drug and the swelling of the gel network influenced the loading/release mechanisms and kinetics, important for the development of improved controlled-release systems for parenteral administration of amphiphilic drugs. Equilibrium studies showed that single microgels (∼100 μm) in a large solution volume underwent a discrete transition between swollen and dense states at a critical drug concentration in the solution. For single macrogels in a small solution volume, the transition progressed gradually with increasing amount of added drug, with swollen and dense phases coexisting in the same gel; in a suspension of microgels, swollen and collapsed particles coexisted. Time-resolved micropipette-assisted microscopy studies showed that drug self-assemblies accumulated in a dense shell enclosing the swollen core during loading and that a dense core was surrounded by a swollen shell during release. The time evolution of the radius of single microgels was determined as functions of liquid flow rate, network size, and AMT concentration in the solution. Mass transport of AMT in the surrounding liquid, and in the dense shell, influenced the deswelling rate during loading. Mass transport in the swollen shell controlled the swelling rate during release. A steady-state kinetic model taking into account drug self-assembly, core-shell phase separation, and microgel volume changes was developed and found to be in semiquantitative agreement with the experimental loading and release data.

Counterion Exchange in Peptide-Complexed Core-Shell Microgels

The complexation of polyvalent macroions with oppositely charged polyelectrolyte microgels can lead to core-shell structures. The shell is believed to be highly deswollen with a high concentration of counter-macroions. The core is believed to be relatively free of macroions but under a uniform compressive stress due to the deswollen shell. We use cryo-scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with X-ray microanalysis to confirm this understanding. We study poly(acrylic acid) (PAA) microgels which form a core-shell structure when complexed with a small cationic antimicrobial peptide (L5). We follow the spatial distribution of polymer, water, Na counterions, and peptide based on the characteristic X-ray intensities of C, O, Na, and N, respectively. Frozen-hydrated microgel suspensions include buffers of known composition from which calibration curves can be generated and used to quantify both the microgel water and sodium concentrations, the latter with a minimum quantifiable concentration less than 0.048 M. We find that as-synthesized PAA microgels are enriched in Na relative to the surrounding buffer as anticipated from established ideas of counterion shielding of electrostatic charge. The shell in L5-complexed microgels is depleted in Na and enriched in peptide and contains relatively little water. Our measurements furthermore show that shell/core interface is diffuse over a length scale of a few micrometers. Within the limits of detection, the core Na concentration is the same as that in as-synthesized microgels, and the core is free of peptide. The core has a slightly lower water concentration than as-synthesized controls, consistent with the hypothesis that the core is under compression from the shell.

Single bead investigation of a clinical drug delivery system - A novel release mechanism

Microgels, such as polymeric hydrogels, are currently used as drug delivery devices (DDSs) for chemotherapeutics and/or unstable drugs. The clinical DDS DC bead® was studied with respect to loading and release, measured as relative bead-volume, of six amphiphilic molecules in a micropipette-assisted microscopy method. Theoretical models for loading and release was used to increase the mechanistic understanding of the DDS. It was shown that equilibrium loading was independent of amphiphile concentration. The loading model showed that the rate-determining step was diffusion of the molecule from the bulk to the bead surface ('film control'). Calculations with the developed and applied release model on the release kinetics were consistent with the observations, as the amphiphiles distribute unevenly in the bead. The rate determining step of the release was the diffusion of the amphiphile molecule through the developed amphiphile-free depletion layer. The release rate is determined by the diffusivity and the tendency for aggregation of the amphiphile where a weak tendency for aggregation (i.e. a large cac_b) lead to faster release. Salt was necessary for the release to happen, but at physiological concentrations the entry of salt was not rate-determining. This study provides valuable insights into the loading to and release from the DDS. Also, a novel release mechanism of the clinically used DDS is suggested.

Binding of Lysozyme to Spherical Poly(styrenesulfonate) Gels

Polyelectrolyte gels are useful as carriers of proteins and other biomacromolecules in, e.g., drug delivery. The rational design of such systems requires knowledge about how the binding and release are affected by electrostatic and hydrophobic interactions between the components. To this end we have investigated the uptake of lysozyme by weakly crosslinked spherical poly(styrenesulfonate) (PSS) microgels and macrogels by means of micromanipulator assisted light microscopy and small angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) in an aqueous environment. The results show that the binding process is an order of magnitude slower than for cytochrome c and for lysozyme binding to sodium polyacrylate gels under the same conditions. This is attributed to the formation of very dense protein-rich shells in the outer layers of the microgels with low permeability to the protein. The shells in macrogels contain 60 wt % water and nearly charge stoichiometric amounts of lysozyme and PSS in the form of dense complexes of radius 8 nm comprising 30⁻60 lysozyme molecules. With support from kinetic modelling results we propose that the rate of protein binding and the relaxation rate of the microgel are controlled by the protein mass transport through the shell, which is strongly affected by hydrophobic and electrostatic interactions. The mechanism explains, in turn, an observed dependence of the diffusion rate on the apparent degree of crosslinking of the networks.

Phase Behavior of Salt-Free Polyelectrolyte Gel-Surfactant Systems

Ionic surfactants tend to collapse the outer parts of polyelectrolyte gels, forming shells that can be used to encapsulate other species including protein and peptide drugs. In this paper, the aqueous phase behavior of covalently cross-linked polyacrylate networks containing sodium ions and dodecyltrimethylammonium ions as counterions is investigated by means of swelling isotherms, dye staining, small-angle X-ray scattering, and confocal Raman spectroscopy. The equilibrium state is approached by letting the networks absorb pure water. With an increasing fraction of surfactant ions, the state of the water-saturated gels is found to change from being swollen and monophasic, via multiphasic states, to collapsed and monophasic. The multiphasic gels have a swollen, micelle-lean core surrounded by a collapsed, micelle-rich shell, or a collapsed phase forming a spheroidal inner shell separating two micelle-lean parts. It is shown that the transition between monophasic and core-shell states can be induced by variation of the osmotic pressure and variation of the charge of the micelles by forming mixed micelles with the nonionic surfactant octaethyleneglycol monododecylether. The experimental data are compared with theoretical predictions of a model derived earlier. In the calculations, the collapsed shell is assumed to be homogeneous, an approximation introduced here and shown to be excellent for a wide range of compositions. The theoretical results highlight the electrostatic and hydrophobic driving forces behind phase separation.

Electrostatic Swelling Transitions in Surface-Bound Microgels

Herein, electrostatic swelling transitions of poly(ethyl acrylate-co-methacrylic acid) microgels covalently bound to silica surfaces are investigated. Confined at a solid surface, microgel swelling is anisotropically hindered and the structure is flattened to an extent dictated by pH and microgel composition. Microgel deformation under applied load is also shown to depend on microgel charge density, with the highest deformation observed at intermediate charge densities. Two modes of microgel deformation under load were observed, one elastic and one viscoelastic, related to polymer strand deformation and displacement of trapped water, respectively. Results on polymer strand dynamics reveal that the microgels are highly dynamic, as the number of strand-tip interaction points increases 4-fold during a 10 s contact time. Furthermore, finite element modeling captures these effects qualitatively and shows that stress propagation in the microgel network decays locally at the rim of contact with a solid interface or close to the tip probe. Taken together, the results demonstrate a delicate interplay between the surface and microgel which determines the structure and nanomechanical properties of the latter and needs to be controlled in applications of systems such as pH-responsive surface coatings in biomaterials.

Single Microgels in Core-Shell Equilibrium: A Novel Method for Limited Volume Studies

The interactions of cationic surfactant dodecyltrimethylammonium bromide and cationic protein cytochrome c with anionic polyacrylate microgels have been investigated in microscopic liquid droplets by means of a micropipette technique at ionic strength 0.01 M and pH 8. Experiments on single microgels in solutions of limited amounts of the surfactant provide the first evidence of microgels in a stable biphasic core-shell state with the surfactant partitioned to the shell. Under the same conditions, the protein is found to distribute uniformly in the microgels. Quantitative data in the form of swelling and binding isotherms are presented and compared with literature data for macrogels and with predictions of a recent gel theory. Theory is found to be in semiquantitative agreement with the experiments. The importance of polyion-mediated attractions between the protein molecules is analyzed theoretically and proposed to explain the continuous but highly cooperative binding isotherms.