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Kumar M, Singhal H, Ansari A, Chakera JA. Design and performance of a double-solenoid magnetic bottle photoelectron spectrometer for attosecond metrology. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2023; 94:023303. [PMID: 36859052 DOI: 10.1063/5.0105623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
The design and performance of an in-house developed double-solenoid magnetic bottle (MB) time-of-flight photoelectron spectrograph are presented. A combination of a strong permanent magnet (Sm2Co17) with a soft iron cone and a double-solenoid geometry is used to generate MB configuration. The first solenoid (length ∼150 mm) is placed inside the vacuum, and the second solenoid (length ∼1 m) is placed outside the vacuum. The double-solenoid geometry improves the effective conductance and reduces overall material outgassing. Due to this, an ultra-high vacuum (∼5 × 10-8 mbar) desirable for the working of the spectrograph was achieved using a small capacity (300 lps) turbo-molecular pump. An optimization of solenoid current generates a smooth magnetic field variation in MB, which keeps the adiabaticity parameter ∼0.6 at ∼25 eV photoelectron energy. The double-solenoid geometry also provides high collection efficiency as well as high energy resolution of the spectrograph. The experimentally measured energy resolution (ΔE) of the spectrograph is better than ∼60 meV at ∼15 eV photoelectron energy. The collection efficiency is estimated to be ∼25% under optimum conditions as compared with ∼10-4 in field-free configuration. The calibrated MB spectrograph is used for the characterization of the attosecond pulse train using a cross-correlation "RABBITT" technique. The attosecond pulse train is generated from 15th to 25th odd high-harmonic orders, in argon filled cell. Attosecond pulses of average duration ∼260 as (FWHM) have been measured. The proposed MB electron spectrograph design provides a compact experimental setup for attosecond metrology and pump-probe studies with a relaxed requirement on vacuum pump capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Kumar
- Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore 452 013, India
| | - H Singhal
- Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore 452 013, India
| | - A Ansari
- Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore 452 013, India
| | - J A Chakera
- Raja Ramanna Centre for Advanced Technology, Indore 452 013, India
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2
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Huart L, Fournier M, Dupuy R, Vacheresse R, Reinhardt M, Cubaynes D, Céolin D, Hervé du Penhoat MA, Renault JP, Guigner JM, Kumar A, Lutet-Toti B, Bozek J, Ismail I, Journel L, Lablanquie P, Penent F, Nicolas C, Palaudoux J. First (e,e) coincidence measurements on solvated sodium benzoate in water using a magnetic bottle time-of-flight spectrometer. Phys Chem Chem Phys 2023; 25:11085-11092. [PMID: 36484473 DOI: 10.1039/d2cp02982k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Sodium benzoate molecules solvated in water are studied using coincidence electron spectroscopy coupled with a liquid microjet device.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. Huart
- Synchrotron Soleil, 91192 Saint Aubin, France
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, MHNH, 75252 Paris, France
| | - M. Fournier
- Synchrotron Soleil, 91192 Saint Aubin, France
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - R. Dupuy
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - R. Vacheresse
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - M. Reinhardt
- Nano and Molecular Systems Research Unit, University of Oulu, PO Box 3000, FI-90014, Finland
| | - D. Cubaynes
- ISMO, CNRS UMR 8214, Université Paris Sud, bâtiment 350, F-91405, Orsay, France
| | - D. Céolin
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - M. A. Hervé du Penhoat
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, MHNH, 75252 Paris, France
| | - J. P. Renault
- Université Paris-Saclay, CEA, CNRS, NIMBE, CEA Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France
| | - J.-M. Guigner
- Institut de Minéralogie, de Physique des Matériaux et de Cosmochimie, Sorbonne Université, UMR CNRS 7590, MHNH, 75252 Paris, France
| | - A. Kumar
- Synchrotron Soleil, 91192 Saint Aubin, France
| | - B. Lutet-Toti
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - J. Bozek
- Synchrotron Soleil, 91192 Saint Aubin, France
| | - I. Ismail
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - L. Journel
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - P. Lablanquie
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - F. Penent
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
| | - C. Nicolas
- Synchrotron Soleil, 91192 Saint Aubin, France
| | - J. Palaudoux
- Sorbonne Université, CNRS, Laboratoire de Chimie Physique – Matière et Rayonnement, LCP-MR, F-75005 Paris Cedex 05, France
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Schewe HC, Credidio B, Ghrist AM, Malerz S, Ozga C, Knie A, Haak H, Meijer G, Winter B, Osterwalder A. Imaging of Chemical Kinetics at the Water-Water Interface in a Free-Flowing Liquid Flat-Jet. J Am Chem Soc 2022; 144:7790-7795. [PMID: 35471014 PMCID: PMC9073938 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.2c01232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
We present chemical kinetics measurements of the luminol oxidation chemiluminescence (CL) reaction at the interface between two aqueous solutions, using liquid jet technology. Free-flowing liquid microjets are a relatively recent development that have found their way into a growing number of applications in spectroscopy and dynamics. A variant thereof, called flat-jet, is obtained when two cylindrical jets of a liquid are crossed, leading to a chain of planar leaf-shaped structures of the flowing liquid. We here show that in the first leaf of this chain, the fluids do not exhibit turbulent mixing, providing a clean interface between the liquids from the impinging jets. We also show, using the example of the luminol CL reaction, how this setup can be used to obtain kinetics information from friction-less flow and by circumventing the requirement for rapid mixing by intentionally suppressing all turbulent mixing and instead relying on diffusion.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Christian Schewe
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Institute of Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Flemingovo nám. 2, 16610 Prague 6, Czech Republic
| | - Bruno Credidio
- Institute for Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aaron M Ghrist
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany.,Department of Chemistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California 90089-0482, United States
| | - Sebastian Malerz
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Christian Ozga
- Institut für Physik und CINSaT, Universität Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Straße 40, 34132 Kassel, Germany
| | - André Knie
- Institut für Physik und CINSaT, Universität Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Straße 40, 34132 Kassel, Germany
| | - Henrik Haak
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Gerard Meijer
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Bernd Winter
- Fritz-Haber-Institut der Max-Planck-Gesellschaft, Faradayweg 4-6, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Andreas Osterwalder
- Institute for Chemical Sciences and Engineering (ISIC), Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL), 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
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Fournier M, Huart L, Dupuy R, Vacheresse R, Reinhardt M, Cubaynes D, Céolin D, Hervé du Penhoat MA, Renault JP, Guigner JM, Kumar A, Lutet-Toti B, Bozek J, Ismail I, Journel L, Lablanquie P, Penent F, Nicolas C, Palaudoux J. Coupling a magnetic bottle multi-electron spectrometer with a liquid micro-jet device: a comprehensive study of solvated sodium benzoate at the O 1 s threshold. EPJ WEB OF CONFERENCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1051/epjconf/202227301009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
We have developed a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron-electron coincidence spectrometer to perform measurements on solvated molecules in a liquid micro-jet. We present here the first results obtained after ionization of the oxygen 1s inner-shell of sodium benzoate molecules and show the possibilities to filter out the electron signal arising from the liquid phase from the signal of water molecules in the gas phase. Both photoelectrons and Auger electrons spectra (unfiltered and filtered) are presented.
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Kurahashi N, Thürmer S, Liu SY, Yamamoto YI, Karashima S, Bhattacharya A, Ogi Y, Horio T, Suzuki T. Design and characterization of a magnetic bottle electron spectrometer for time-resolved extreme UV and X-ray photoemission spectroscopy of liquid microjets. STRUCTURAL DYNAMICS (MELVILLE, N.Y.) 2021; 8:034303. [PMID: 34131579 PMCID: PMC8195612 DOI: 10.1063/4.0000107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We describe a magnetic bottle time-of-flight electron spectrometer designed for time-resolved photoemission spectroscopy of a liquid microjet using extreme UV and X-ray radiation. The spectrometer can be easily reconfigured depending on experimental requirements and the energy range of interest. To improve the energy resolution at high electron kinetic energy, a retarding potential can be applied either via a stack of electrodes or retarding mesh grids, and a flight-tube extension can be attached to increase the flight time. A gated electron detector was developed to reject intense parasitic signal from light scattered off the surface of the cylindrically shaped liquid microjet. This detector features a two-stage multiplication with a microchannel plate plus a fast-response scintillator followed by an image-intensified photon detector. The performance of the spectrometer was tested at SPring-8 and SACLA, and time-resolved photoelectron spectra were measured for an ultrafast charge transfer to solvent reaction in an aqueous NaI solution with a 200 nm UV pump pulses from a table-top ultrafast laser and the 5.5 keV hard X-ray probe pulses from SACLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoya Kurahashi
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Stephan Thürmer
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Suet Yi Liu
- Molecular Reaction Dynamics Research Team, RIKEN Center for Advanced Photonics, 2–1 Hirosawa, Wako 351-0198, Japan
| | - Yo-ichi Yamamoto
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Shutaro Karashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Atanu Bhattacharya
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Ogi
- Molecular Reaction Dynamics Research Team, RIKEN Center for Advanced Photonics, 2–1 Hirosawa, Wako 351-0198, Japan
| | - Takuya Horio
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan
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Nishitani J, Karashima S, West CW, Suzuki T. Surface potential of liquid microjet investigated using extreme ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy. J Chem Phys 2020; 152:144503. [PMID: 32295374 DOI: 10.1063/5.0005930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Photoelectron spectroscopy of a liquid microjet requires careful energy calibration against electrokinetic charging of the microjet. For minimizing the error from this calibration procedure, Kurahashi et al. previously suggested optimization of an electrolyte concentration in aqueous solutions [Kurahashi et al., J. Chem. Phys. 140, 174506 (2014)]. More recently, Olivieri et al. proposed an alternative method of applying a variable external voltage on the liquid microjet [Olivieri et al., Phys. Chem. Chem. Phys. 18, 29506 (2016)]. In this study, we examined these two methods of calibration using extreme ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy with a magnetic bottle time-of-flight photoelectron spectrometer. We confirmed that the latter method flattens the vacuum level potential around the microjet, similar to the former method, while we found that the applied voltage energy-shifts the entire spectrum. Thus, careful energy recalibration is indispensable after the application of an external voltage for accurate measurements. It is also pointed out that electric conductivity of liquid on the order of 1 mS/cm is required for stable application of an external voltage. Therefore, both methods need a similar concentration of an electrolyte. Using the calibration method proposed by Olivieri et al., Perry et al. have recently revised the vertical ionization energy of liquid water to be 11.67(15) eV [Perry et al., J. Phys. Chem. Lett. 11, 1789 (2020)], which is 0.4 eV higher than the previously estimated value. While the source of this discrepancy is still unclear, we estimate that their calibration method possibly leaves uncertainty on the order of 0.1 eV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junichi Nishitani
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Shutaro Karashima
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Christopher W West
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Toshinori Suzuki
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Kyoto University, Kitashirakawa-Oiwakecho, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
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7
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Perry CF, Zhang P, Nunes FB, Jordan I, von Conta A, Wörner HJ. Ionization Energy of Liquid Water Revisited. J Phys Chem Lett 2020; 11:1789-1794. [PMID: 31977222 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b03391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
The ionization energy of liquid water is one of its most fundamental properties, an important benchmark for first-principles electronic-structure calculations and a crucial reference in the growing field of liquid-phase photoelectron spectroscopy. Despite this significance, a consensus on its value appears to be missing in the literature. Therefore, we use a monochromatized high-harmonic light source to perform detailed measurements of the ionization energy of liquid water in the presence of a tunable bias voltage applied to the liquid jet. Our results suggest that this simple method is sufficient to simultaneously compensate the effects of the streaming potential and that of the vacuum-level offset between the liquid and the photoelectron spectrometer. Our measurements yield corrected values of the vertical and adiabatic ionization energies of the 1b1 band of bulk liquid water of 11.67(15) and 10.12(15) eV, respectively. Our method is broadly applicable and is likely to result in corrections to the measured ionization energies of solvated species as well.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conaill F Perry
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Pengju Zhang
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Fernanda B Nunes
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Inga Jordan
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Aaron von Conta
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Hans Jakob Wörner
- Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie, ETH Zurich,Vladimir-Prelog-Weg 2, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
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Schild A, Peper M, Perry C, Rattenbacher D, Wörner HJ. Alternative Approach for the Determination of Mean Free Paths of Electron Scattering in Liquid Water Based on Experimental Data. J Phys Chem Lett 2020; 11:1128-1134. [PMID: 31928019 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpclett.9b02910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
Mean free paths of low-energy electrons in liquid water are of importance for modeling many physicochemical processes, but neither theoretical predictions nor experimental results have converged for these parameters. We therefore introduce an approach to determine elastic and inelastic mean free paths (EMFP, IMFP) based on experimental data. We show that ab initio calculations of electron scattering with water clusters converge with cluster size, thus providing access to condensed-phase scattering. The results are used in Monte Carlo simulations to extract EMFP and IMFP from recent liquid-microjet experiments that determined the effective attenuation length (EAL) and the photoelectron angular distribution (PAD) following oxygen 1s-ionization of liquid water. For electron kinetic energies from 10 to 300 eV, we find that the IMFP is noticeably larger than the EAL. The EMFP is longer than that of gas-phase water and the IMFP is longer compared to latest theoretical estimations, but both EMFP and IMFP are much shorter than suggested by experimental measurements of integral cross sections for amorphous ice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Axel Schild
- ETH Zürich, Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie , 8093 Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Michael Peper
- ETH Zürich, Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie , 8093 Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Conaill Perry
- ETH Zürich, Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie , 8093 Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Dominik Rattenbacher
- ETH Zürich, Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie , 8093 Zürich , Switzerland
- Max Planck Institute for the Science of Light , Staudtstrasse 2 , 91058 Erlangen , Germany
| | - Hans Jakob Wörner
- ETH Zürich, Laboratorium für Physikalische Chemie , 8093 Zürich , Switzerland
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High-Harmonic and Terahertz Spectroscopy (HATS): Methods and Applications. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2019. [DOI: 10.3390/app9050853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Electrons driven from atom or molecule by intense dual-color laser fields can coherently radiate high harmonics from extreme ultraviolet to soft X-ray, as well as an intense terahertz (THz) wave from millimeter to sub-millimeter wavelength. The joint measurement of high-harmonic and terahertz spectroscopy (HATS) was established and further developed as a unique tool for monitoring electron dynamics of argon from picoseconds to attoseconds and for studying the molecular structures of nitrogen. More insights on the rescattering process could be gained by correlating the fast and slow electron motions via observing and manipulating the HATS from atoms and molecules. We also propose the potential investigations of HATS of polar molecules, and solid and liquid sources.
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Arnold C, Inhester L, Carbajo S, Welsch R, Santra R. Simulated XUV photoelectron spectra of THz-pumped liquid water. J Chem Phys 2019; 150:044505. [PMID: 30709301 DOI: 10.1063/1.5054272] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Highly intense, sub-picosecond terahertz (THz) pulses can be used to induce ultrafast temperature jumps (T-jumps) in liquid water. A supercritical state of gas-like water with liquid density is established, and the accompanying structural changes are expected to give rise to time-dependent chemical shifts. We investigate the possibility of using extreme ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy as a probe for ultrafast dynamics induced by sub-picosecond THz pulses of varying intensities and frequencies. To this end, we use ab initio methods to calculate photoionization cross sections and photoelectron energies of (H2O)20 clusters embedded in an aqueous environment represented by point charges. The cluster geometries are sampled from ab initio molecular dynamics simulations modeling the THz-water interactions. We find that the peaks in the valence photoelectron spectrum are shifted by up to 0.4 eV after the pump pulse and that they are broadened with respect to unheated water. The shifts can be connected to structural changes caused by the heating, but due to saturation effects they are not sensitive enough to serve as a thermometer for T-jumped water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline Arnold
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Ludger Inhester
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sergio Carbajo
- SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Stanford University, 2575 Sand Hill Road, Menlo Park, California 94025, USA
| | - Ralph Welsch
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Robin Santra
- Center for Free-Electron Laser Science, DESY, Notkestrasse 85, 22607 Hamburg, Germany
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