Use of self-expandable metallic stents in benign GI diseases

Strategies for Preventing Esophageal Stenosis After Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection and Progress in Stem Cell-Based Therapies

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) has been widely used in the early neoplasia of the esophagus. However, postoperative esophageal stenosis is a big problem, particularly when a large circumferential proportion of esophageal mucosa is resected. Currently, there are several methods available to prevent esophageal stenosis after ESD, including steroid administration, esophageal stent implantation, and endoscopic balloon dilation (EBD). However, the therapeutic effects of these are not yet satisfactory. Stem cell-based therapies has shown promising potential in reconstructing tissue structure and restoring tissue function. In this study, we discussed the current strategies for preventing esophageal stenosis after ESD and perspectives of stem cell-based therapies for the prevention of esophageal stenosis.

Radiofrequency ablation via an implanted self-expandable metallic stent to treat in-stent restenosis in a rat gastric outlet obstruction model

Background: In-stent restenosis caused by tissue hyperplasia and tumor growth through the wire meshes of an implanted self-expandable metallic stent (SEMS) remains an unresolved obstacle. This study aimed to investigate the safety and efficacy of SEMS-mediated radiofrequency ablation (RFA) for treating stent-induced tissue hyperplasia in a rat gastric outlet obstruction model. Methods: The ablation zone was investigated using extracted porcine liver according to the ablation time. The optimal RFA parameters were evaluated in the dissected rat gastric outlet. We allocated 40 male rats to four groups of 10 rats as follows: group A, SEMS placement only; group B, SEMS-mediated RFA at 4 weeks; group C, SEMS-mediated RFA at 4 weeks and housed until 8 weeks; and group D, SEMS-mediated RFA at 4 and 8 weeks. Endoscopy and fluoroscopy for in vivo imaging and histological and immunohistochemical analysis were performed to compare experimental groups. Results: Stent placement and SEMS-mediated RFA with an optimized RFA parameter were technically successful in all groups. Granulation tissue formation-related variables were significantly higher in group A than in groups B-D (all p < 0.05). Endoscopic and histological findings confirmed that the degrees of stent-induced tissue hyperplasia in group D were significantly lower than in groups B and C (all p < 0.05). Hsp70 and TUNEL expressions were significantly higher in groups B-D than in group A (all p < 0.001). Conclusion: The implanted SEMS-mediated RFA successfully managed stent-induced tissue hyperplasia, and repeated or periodic RFA seems to be more effective in treating in-stent restenosis in a rat gastric outlet obstruction model.

Lumen-apposing metal stents for the treatment of benign gastrointestinal tract strictures: a single-center experience and proposed treatment algorithm

BACKGROUND

Lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) are an alternative therapeutic option for benign gastrointestinal (GI) tract strictures. Our study aimed to evaluate the safety and efficacy of LAMS for the management of benign GI strictures.

METHODS

Consecutive patients who underwent a LAMS placement for benign luminal GI strictures at a tertiary care center between January 2014 and July 2021 were reviewed. Primary outcomes included technical success, early clinical success, and adverse events (AEs). Other outcomes included rates of stent migration and re-intervention after LAMS removal.

RESULTS

One hundred and nine patients who underwent 128 LAMS placements (67.9% female, mean age of 54.3 ± 14.2 years) were included, and 70.6% of the patients had failed prior endoscopic treatments. The majority of strictures (83.5%) were anastomotic, and the most common stricture site was the gastrojejunal anastomosis (65.9%). Technical success was achieved in 100% of procedures, while early clinical success was achieved in 98.4%. The overall stent-related AE rate was 25%. The migration rate was 27.3% (35/128). Of these, five stents were successfully repositioned endoscopically. The median stent dwell time was 119 days [interquartile range (IQR) 68-189 days], and the median follow-up duration was 668.5 days [IQR: 285.5-1441.5 days]. The re-intervention rate after LAMS removal was 58.3%.

CONCLUSIONS

LAMS is an effective therapeutic option for benign GI strictures, offering high technical and early clinical success. However, the re-intervention rate after LAMS removal was high. In select cases, using LAMS placement as destination therapy with close surveillance is a reasonable option.

An unexpected complication of prophylactic esophageal stenting: esophageal stent impaction after thread dislocation

A 47-year-old woman was referred to our department with opportunistic endoscopic findings of two submucosal esophageal bulges, approximately half the circumference of the esophagus, both nearly 2.0 cm in size, and 24-27 cm from the incisors. Ultrasound endoscopy diagnosed smooth muscle tumors originating from the muscularis propria layer and she next underwent submucosal tunneling endoscopic resection. Intraoperatively, part of the tumor could not be separated from the muscularis propria layer and a U-shaped tumor was finally resected. A fully covered self-expanding esophageal nitinol stent was then inserted, covering the full circumference esophageal mucosa. The stent was fixed by ears with knotted thread and proton pump inhibitors were given for 1 week.

Double layer stent for the treatment of leaks and fistula after upper gastrointestinal oncologic surgery: a retrospective study

Anastomotic dehiscence is one of the most morbidity related and deadly complication after foregut oncologic surgery. The aim of the study is to evaluate the effectiveness of double layer stents (Niti-S™ Beta™ Esophageal Stent) in the management of dehiscences after upper gastrointestinal oncologic surgery. We retrospectively studied consecutive patients who underwent Niti-S™ Beta™ esophageal stent placement from June 2014 to September 2019 for the treatment of anastomotic leaks/fistula following esophagectomy or gastrectomy for cancer. Univariate two-sided logistic regression analysis was used to evaluate possible predictors of successful anastomotic leak/fistula closure. A total of 37 patients were studied and 75 stents were positioned in these patients during the endoscopic procedures. Effective leak/fistula closure was obtained in 23/37 (62.2%). No technical endoscopic failure or complications ensued during the placing of the devices. Regarding delayed complications, migration was observed in 17/75 (22.7%) procedures and stent leaking in 29/75 (38.6%). Three variables significantly favoured stent treatment failure, namely previous neoadjuvant therapy (OR 9.3, P = 0.01), fistula (instead of leak) (OR 6.5, P = 0.01), and stent leak (OR 17.0, P = 0.01). Placement of Beta Niti-S esophageal stent is a safe and effective method that could be considered for the management of leaks and fistula after upper gastrointestinal cancer. Crucial points in the management of post-surgical leaks with this technique are the prompt recognition of leaks and fistula, the prompt endoscopic/radiologic drain of collection and the choice of adequate size of the stent.

Progress of esophageal stricture prevention after endoscopic submucosal dissection by regenerative medicine and tissue engineering

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) has been widely accepted as an effective treatment for early esophageal cancer. However, post-ESD esophageal stricture remains a thorny issue. We herein review many strategies for preventing post-ESD esophageal stricture, as well as discuss their strengths and weaknesses. These strategies include pharmacological prophylaxis, esophageal stent and tissue engineering and regenerative medicine treatment. In this review, we summarize these studies and discuss the underlying progress and future directions of tissue engineering and regenerative medicine treatment.

Carotid-Esophageal Fistula Treated By Endovascular Approach

The carotid-esophageal fistula is a rare and serious complication of the metallic esophageal prosthesis. A high index of suspicion is required for early diagnosis and treatment, decreasing the morbidity and mortality rate of this severe complication. We report a case of a 4-year-old boy presenting severe upper gastrointestinal bleeding due to a carotid-esophageal fistula, secondary to deployment of an esophageal metallic prosthesis for treatment of a recurrent stenosis. The carotid pseudo-aneurism was successfully treated with stents and coils. Although endovascular treatment is a safe and effective option, arterial stenting in children needs further studies with long-term follow-up.

Mechanically robust enzymatically degradable shape memory polyurethane urea with a rapid recovery response induced by NIR

NIR-light triggered shape memory process involving PU/gold-nanorod composites is shown.

Biological behavior exploration of a paclitaxel-eluting poly-l-lactide-coated Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy intestinal stent in vivo

As a new type of intestinal stent, the MAO/PLLA/paclitaxel/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy stent has shown good degradability, although its biocompatibility in vitro and in vivo has not been investigated in detail. In this study, its in vivo biocompatibility was evaluated by animal study. New Zealand white rabbits were implanted with degradable intestinal Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy stents that were exposed to different treatments. Stent degradation behavior was observed both macroscopically and using a scanning electron microscope (SEM). Energy dispersion spectrum (EDS) and histological observations were performed to investigate stent biological safety. Macroscopic analysis showed that the MAO/PLLA/paclitaxel/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd stents could not be located 12 days after implantation. SEM observations showed that corrosion degree of the MAO/PLLA/paclitaxel/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd stents implanted in rabbits was significantly lower than that in the PLLA/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd stent group. Both histopathological testing and serological analysis of in vivo biocompatibility demonstrated that the MAO/PLLA/paclitaxel/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy stents could significantly inhibit intestinal tissue proliferation compared to the PLLA/Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy stents, thus providing the basis for designing excellent biodegradable drug stents.

Mg–Zn–Y–Nd alloy stents coated with MAO/PLLA/paclitaxel coating were implanted into the New Zealand rabbits intestine to investigate the biocompatibility and degradation behavior.

Strategies to prevent stricture after esophageal endoscopic submucosal dissection

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) has been widely applied as a less invasive and more effective method for treating early esophageal cancers such as squamous cell carcinoma and dysplasia of Barrett's esophagus. However, post-ESD esophageal stricture often occurs if patients suffer circumferential mucosal defects of more than three-quarters of the circumference of the esophagus, which makes it difficult for patients to swallow and greatly reduces their quality of life. Moreover, there is currently no standard method to treat post-ESD esophageal stricture, even though it is extraordinarily important to prevent its formation. In recent years, several strategies to prevent esophageal stricture have emerged. These strategies can be classified into pharmacological, mechanical, tissue engineering, and other novel strategies, with each strategy having its own strengths and weaknesses. Although the pharmacological prophylaxis and mechanical strategies are relatively mature, they still have their drawbacks like high time-consumption, the occurrence of re-stricture, and significant side effects. Tissue engineering strategies and other novel strategies have shown promising preliminary results, but more clinical trials are needed. In this review, we discuss these strategies, with a particular focus on tissue engineering strategies and other novel strategies. It is hoped that this discussion will aid in finding more effective and safer strategies to prevent esophageal stricture.

Outcomes of Endoscopic Dilation in Patients with Esophageal Anastomotic Strictures: Comparison Between Different Etiologies

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

This retrospective study was aimed at assessing the efficacy of endoscopic dilation for esophageal anastomotic strictures, and to compare response between caustic anastomotic strictures (CAS) and non-caustic anastomotic strictures (NCAS).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Patients with anastomotic strictures (enrolled during January 1996-December 2015) were analyzed. Short- and long-term outcomes of dilation, in terms of clinical success, refractory, and recurrent strictures were compared between NCAS and CAS. Patients with refractory and recurrent strictures were managed with adjunctive therapy including intralesional steroids. Factors predicting refractoriness at start of dilation and reasons for more than ten lifetime dilations were also evaluated.

RESULTS

Of the 142 patients, 124 (mean age-44.02; males-74) underwent dilation. Clinical success was achieved in 113 (91.3%) patients requiring a median [Interquartile range (IQR)] of 4 (2-10) sessions. The number of dilations to achieve clinical success, refractory strictures, and recurrent strictures, and the use of adjunctive therapy were significantly higher for CAS than for NCAS. Intralesional steroid use decreased periodic dilation index (PDI) significantly in CAS. Caustic etiology and starting dilation diameter of < 10 mm were found to be predictors of refractoriness, with the former alone being an independent predictor of more than ten lifetime dilations. No patient had free perforation; however, five required revision surgery.

CONCLUSION

Patients with CAS fared worse than those with NCAS in terms of number of dilations, refractoriness, recurrence of strictures, and need of adjunctive therapy. Endoscopic dilation can successfully ameliorate dysphagia due to anastomotic strictures in a majority of patients.

Prevention of esophageal stricture after endoscopic resection

Stricture formation after esophageal endoscopic resection has a negative impact on patients' quality of life because it causes dysphagia and requires multiple endoscopic dilations. Various methods by which to prevent stricture have recently been developed and reported. Among these methods, local steroid injection is the most commonly used and is currently considered the standard method for noncircumferential resection. However, local steroid injection has a limited effect on circumferential resection. Thus, oral steroid administration is used for such cases because it may have a stronger effect than local injection. Steroid treatment, both by local injection and oral administration, is effective and low-cost; however, it may cause fragility of the esophageal wall, resulting in adverse events such as perforation during balloon dilatation. Many innovative approaches have been developed, such as tissue-shielding methods with polyglycolic acid, tissue engineering approaches with autologous oral mucosal epithelial cell sheet transplantation, and stent insertion. These methods may be promising, but they are limited by a scarcity of data. Further investigations are needed to confirm the efficacy of these methods.

Biodegradable Stents in Resistant Peptic Oesophageal Stricture: Is It the Right Way to Go?

Peptic oesophageal stricture can be considered as the end result of prolonged gastro-oesophageal reflux. The 'gold standard' treatment for peptic stricture is endoscopic dilatation with balloon or bougie. It is predicted that up to 40% of patients remain symptomatic with dysphagia due to refractory (resistant to treatment) or recurrent strictures, needing frequent interventions at short intervals. Such patients have poor nutritional status due to the primary disease and are susceptible to complications related to repeated endoscopic dilatation such as bleeding and perforation. This general review aims to analyse existing published evidence and address the role of biodegradable stents in resistant peptic strictures as an alternative treatment to provide long-term dysphagia-free intervals.

Progress on the Prevention of Esophageal Stricture after Endoscopic Submucosal Dissection

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) has been widely accepted as an effective, minimally invasive treatment for superficial esophageal cancers. However, esophageal stricture often occurs in patients with large mucosal defects after ESD. In this review, we discuss various approaches recently researched to prevent esophageal strictures after ESD. These approaches can be classified as pharmacological treatments, esophageal stent treatments, and tissue engineering approaches. Most of the preventive approaches still have their limitations and require further research. With the improvement of current therapies, ESD can be more widely utilized as a minimally invasive treatment with minimal complications.

Novel Endoscopic Stent for Anastomotic Leaks after Total Gastrectomy Using an Anchoring Thread and Fully Covering Thick Membrane: Prevention of Embedding and Migration

Purpose

The endoscopic management of a fully covered self-expandable metal stent (SEMS) has been suggested for the primary treatment of patients with anastomotic leaks after total gastrectomy. Embedded stents due to tissue ingrowth and migration are the main obstacles in endoscopic stent management.

Materials and Methods

The effectiveness and safety of endoscopic management were evaluated for anastomotic leaks when using a benign fully covered SEMS with an anchoring thread and thick silicone covering the membrane to prevent stent embedding and migration. We retrospectively reviewed the data of 14 consecutive patients with gastric cancer and anastomotic leaks after total gastrectomy treated from January 2009 to December 2016.

Results

The technical success rate of endoscopic stent replacement was 100%, and the rate of complete leaks closure was 85.7% (n=12). The mean size of leaks was 13.1 mm (range, 3-30 mm). The time interval from operation to stent replacement was 10.7 days (range, 3-35 days) and the interval from stent replacement to extraction was 32.3 days (range, 18-49 days). The complication rate was 14.1%, and included a single jejunal ulcer and delayed stricture at the site of leakage. No embedded stent or migration occurred. Two patients died due to progression of pneumonia and septic shock 2 weeks after stent replacement.

Conclusions

A benign fully covered SEMS with an anchoring thread and thick membrane is an effective and safe stent in patients with anastomotic leaks after total gastrectomy. The novelty of this stent is that it provides complete prevention of stent migration and embedding, compared with conventional fully covered SEMS.

Successful endoscopic removal of three embedded esophageal self-expanding metal stents

In the report, we describe a case of refractory benign esophageal strictures from esophageal cancer after an operation for the placement of three partially covered self-expanding metal stents (SEMSs), which were all embedded in the esophageal wall. Using the stent-in-stent technique, the three embedded SEMSs were successfully removed without significant complications. To the best of our knowledge, few cases of the successful removal of multiple embedded esophageal SEMSs have been reported in the literature. This case also highlights that the stent-in-stent technique is effective for removing multiple embedded esophageal SEMSs.

Double-step invagination technique-A novel approach to retrieve embedded esophageal self-expanding metal stent

Self-expanding metal stenting is an established treatment modality in the management of esophageal growth and stricture. Reactive tissue ingrowth at the uncovered portion of the self-expanding metal stent (SEMS) anchors it in position, preventing its migration. When removal of such an embedded SEMS is clinically indicated, the procedure of endoscopic retrieval is fraught with serious complications. Temporary deployment of a larger fully covered "rescue" SEMS within the embedded SEMS has been reported to be useful in the extraction of the embedded SEMS. When the regression of embedding tissue, is only partially achieved by such "rescue" fully covered SEMS, further extraction of the embedded SEMS can prove to be technically challenging. Here we report two cases where a novel technique, namely the "double-step invagination technique," was useful in retrieving such embedded esophageal SEMS.

Safety and efficacy of coaxial lumen-apposing metal stents in the management of refractory gastrointestinal luminal strictures: a multicenter study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

 Benign gastrointestinal (GI) strictures are often refractory to standard endoscopic interventions. Fully covered coaxial lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS) have emerged as a novel therapy for these strictures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the safety and efficacy of LAMS for refractory GI strictures.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

 A retrospective analysis was performed for patients who underwent LAMS placement for benign luminal strictures in three US centers between January 2014 and December 2016. The primary outcomes were technical success and initial clinical success of LAMS placement. Secondary outcomes were stent migration, rate of re-intervention, and adverse events.

RESULTS

 A total of 49 patients underwent 56 LAMS placement procedures. Previous treatment had failed in 39 patients (79.6 %), and anastomotic strictures were the indication in 77.6 % (38/49), with the most common site being gastrojejunal (34.7 % [17/49]). Technical success was achieved in all procedures and initial clinical success was achieved in 96.4 % of all procedures (54/56). Patient initial clinical success was 95.9 % (47/49). Stent migration occurred in 17.9 % of procedures, and was more likely to occur at sites in the lower GI tract ( P  = 0.02). The mean stent dwell time was 100.6 days, and the mean follow-up was 169.8 days. Minor adverse events, not requiring hospitalization, occurred in 33.9 % of procedures, including subsequent stricture progression (10.7 %). In cases where LAMS were removed, mean follow-up time was 102.2 days. The re-intervention rate was 75 % at 300 days follow-up after stent removal. Of the LAMS placed at anastomotic strictures, 36.4 % required re-intervention, with approximately two-thirds of these re-interventions requiring placement of a new stent or surgery.

CONCLUSION

 LAMS placement was successful for the management of refractory GI strictures, with good technical and initial clinical success rates. However, re-intervention rates after LAMS removal were high, and many strictures were not resolved by an extended period of stenting with these coaxial stents. LAMS placement offers additional therapeutic options and in selected cases might be considered a destination therapy for patients with recalcitrant benign strictures.

Use of a lumen-apposing metal stent to treat GI strictures (with videos)

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Benign GI strictures occur typically in the esophagus and pyloric channel but can occur anywhere in the GI tract and at anastomotic sites. Such strictures can be treated with dilation, incisional therapy, steroid injection, and stents. Our aim was to describe the use of a lumen-apposing metal stent (LAMS) to treat short, benign GI strictures.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Consecutive patients who underwent LAMS placement for various benign strictures at 2 tertiary care centers from August 2014 to November 2015 were reviewed retrospectively. The main outcome measures were technical success, clinical success, stent migration, and adverse events.

RESULTS

Twenty-five patients (7 males, 18 females) with a median age of 54 years (33-85 years) underwent 28 LAMS placements to treat various benign strictures. The location of the strictures included esophagogastric anastomoses (n=4), gastrojejunal anastomoses (n=13), pylorus (n=6), vertical banded gastroplasty (n=1), and ileocolonic anastomosis (n=1). Twenty patients had been previously treated with dilation alone (9 patients with ≥3 dilations), 11 patients with dilation and steroid injection, 2 patients with additional needle-knife therapy, and 1 patient with placement of a traditional fully covered self-expandable metal stent. A 15-mm internal diameter LAMS was placed in all patients; 3 patients had been treated previously with a 10-mm LAMS. Technical success was achieved in all patients, whereas clinical success was achieved in 15 of 25 patients (60%) who completed a minimum of 6 months of follow-up after placement. Median stent dwell time was 92 days (range, 3-273 days). Stent migration was seen in 2 of 28 stent placements (7%). Four of 25 patients (16%) developed 5 moderate adverse events (pain requiring removal, 2; new stricture formation, 2; bleeding, 1). Median follow-up was 301 days after stent placement. Study limitations include the small, select group of patients, the retrospective study design, and short follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

LAMS placement for benign GI strictures is technically easy and safe with low migration rates and may be an option to treat selected patients with short-length strictures.

History of the Use of Esophageal Stent in Management of Dysphagia and Its Improvement Over the Years

The art and science of using stents to treat dysphagia and seal fistula, leaks and perforations has been evolving. Lessons learnt from the deficiencies of previous models led to several improvements making stent deployment easier, and with some designs, it was also possible to remove the stents if needed. With these improvements, besides malignant dysphagia, newer indications for using stents emerged. Unfortunately, despite several decades of evolution, as yet, there is no perfect stent that "fits all." This article is an overview of how this evolution process happened and where we are currently with using stents to manage patients with dysphagia and with other esophageal disorders.

Fully covered metal stents for the treatment of leaks after gastric and esophageal surgery

OBJECTIVE

The use of fully covered metal stents (FCMS) for the treatment of benign conditions is increasing. The aim of our study was to assess the efficacy of FCMS in the management of post-operative leaks after gastric or esophageal surgery.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

During a three year period (2011-2013), patients who underwent a surgery related with esophageal or gastric cancer and developed a postoperative anastomotic leak treated with FCMS were prospectively included.

RESULTS

Fourteen patients were included (11 men, 3 women), with median age of 65 years. Placement of at least one stent was achieved in 13 patients (93% of cases), with initial closure of the leak in 12 of these 13 cases (92.3%). A final success (after removal of the stent) could be demonstrated in 9 cases (69.2%, intention to treat analysis); stent failed only in one case (7.7%) and there were 3 patients (23.1%) not evaluated because death before stent retrieval (not related with the endoscopic procedure). One stent were used in 9 cases (69.2%), and two in 4 (30.8%). Migration was observed in two cases (15.3%). There were no major complications related with the use of stents. There were no complications related with retrieval.

CONCLUSIONS

The placement of FCMS to achieve the leak closure after esophageal or gastric surgery is an effective and probably safe alternative feasible with minor risks.

Endoscopic treatment of benign esophageal strictures: a literature review

Benign esophageal strictures arise from various etiologies and are frequently encountered. Although endoscopic dilation is still the first-line therapy, recurrent strictures do occur in approximately 10% of the cases and remains a challenge to gastroenterologists. Areas covered: A literature search was performed using PubMed and Google Scholar databases for original and review articles on endoscopic treatment of benign esophageal strictures. This review outlines the main available treatment options and its controversies in the management of refractory benign esophageal strictures. Expert commentary: Adding local steroid injections to dilation can be effective for peptic stenosis and strictures after endoscopic submucosal dissection, but remains uncertain for anastomotic strictures. Intralesional injections of mitomycin-C could be useful in corrosive strictures. Incisional therapy can be a reliable alternative in Schatzki rings and in anastomotic strictures, in experienced hands. By contrast, long-term outcome with endoprosthetic treatment is disappointing, and stent placement should be carefully considered and individualized.

Natural history and management of refractory benign esophageal strictures

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The natural history of refractory benign esophageal strictures (RBES) is unclear, and surgery or percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG) may be the only viable long-term options. The aim of the present study was to assess the long-term outcomes of patients with RBES.

METHODS

Clinical data of consecutive patients with RBES treated in the previous 15 years in 2 tertiary-care referral academic centers with specialized interest in esophageal stricture management were retrospectively analyzed. RBES was defined as the persistence and/or recurrence of dysphagia despite at least 5 dilation sessions and/or cycles with dilation to at least 14 mm. Information regarding the use of dilation or stents and the dysphagia-free period between subsequent interventions and adverse events was collected. Clinical success was defined as no need for endoscopic interventions for at least 6 months; unfavorable outcomes were defined as the need for endoscopic treatment at the end of follow-up, surgery, or percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy (PEG). Predictors of unfavorable outcomes were assessed by multivariate analysis. A linear mixed-effect model was used to measure dysphagia-free period changes over time.

RESULTS

Overall, 70 patients with RBES (46 male; mean age 60 years) were followed for a mean of 43.9 months (range 3.7-157 months). Caustic, postradiotherapy, surgical, mixed, and postinflammatory etiology accounted for 10%, 14.3%, 31.4%, 40%, and 4.3% of causes, respectively. All patients underwent sequential sessions of pneumatic or bougie dilation, with a median of 15.5 dilation sessions per patient. Self-expandable metal stents (SEMSs) and biodegradable stents were placed in 18 (25.7%) and 14 (20%) patients, respectively. RBES resolution was achieved in only 22 of 70 (31.4%) patients. Two deaths (3%) were related to RBES. The success rate was lower in those who also were treated with endoprosthetics (odds ratio [OR] 3.7; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.01-18.0). The mean dysphagia-free period was 3.3 months (95% CI, 2.4-4.1) for patients treated with dilation and 2.4 months (95% CI, 1.2-3.6) for those treated with stents (P = .062). Over time, the total dysphagia-free period increased at a rate of 4.1 days (95% CI, 1.7-6.4) per dilation. There was no difference in the rate of change across groups defined by sex (P = .976), age (P = .633), or endoscopic treatment (P = .267).

CONCLUSIONS

Our multicenter series showed a disappointing long-term outcome for RBES, with only 1 of 3 achieving clinical resolution. The dysphagia-free period was relatively short, affecting the quality of life. Endoprosthetics did not appear to affect the natural history of RBES.

Clinical Outcomes, Efficacy, and Adverse Events in Patients Undergoing Esophageal Stent Placement for Benign Indications: A Large Multicenter Study

INTRODUCTION

Esophageal stents are commonly used to treat benign esophageal conditions including refractory benign esophageal strictures, anastomotic strictures, fistulae, perforations and anastomotic leaks. Data on outcomes in these settings remain limited.

METHODS

We performed a retrospective multicenter study of patients who underwent fully or partially covered self-expandable stent placement for benign esophageal diseases. Esophageal stent placements were performed for the following indications: (1) benign refractory esophageal strictures, (2) surgical anastomotic strictures, (3) esophageal perforations, (4) esophageal fistulae, and (5) surgical anastomotic leaks.

RESULTS

A total of 70 patients underwent esophageal stent placement for benign esophageal conditions. A total of 114 separate procedures were performed. The most common indication for esophageal stent placement was refractory benign esophageal stricture (48.2%). Global treatment success rate was 55.7%. Treatment success rate was 33.3% in refractory benign strictures, 23.1% in anastomotic strictures, 100% in perforations, 71.4% in fistulae, and 80% in anastomotic leaks. Stent migration was noted in 28 of 70 patients (40%), most commonly seen in refractory benign strictures.

CONCLUSIONS

This is one of the largest studies to date of esophageal stents to treat benign esophageal diseases. Success rates are lowest in benign esophageal strictures. These patients have few other options beyond chronic dilations, feeding tubes, and surgery, and fully covered self-expandable metallic stent give patients a chance to have their problem fixed endoscopically and still eat by mouth. Perforations, fistulas, and leaks respond very well to esophageal stenting, and stenting should be considered as a first-line therapy in these settings.

The Clinical Outcome in Patients Treated With a Newly Designed SEMS in Cervical Esophageal Strictures and Fistulas

BACKGROUND AND GOALS

Using a self-expandable metallic stent (SEMS) in the cervical esophagus is controversial due to an increased risk of complications. Here we assessed a new type of SEMS purpose-designed for the cervical esophagus area.

STUDY

Patients with malignant or benign stenosis within 4 cm distance of the upper esophageal sphincter who underwent placement of a SEMS with a shorter proximal head (Niti-S Esophageal Covered Stent-Cervical-type, NSECSC), were included. Main outcome measures were the functional outcome, tolerance, complications, recurrent dysphagia, and survival.

RESULTS

About 37 patients had an NSECSC placed between April 2008 and June 2013 for esophageal stenosis (malignant=20, benign=17), 5 with associated tracheoesophageal fistula. The mean stenosis-upper esophageal sphincter distance was 1.86±1.27 cm. The median follow-up was 150 days. Dysphagia improved in 27/37 cases (73%). Short-term and long-term tolerance without needing stent removal was 92% and 82%, respectively. The complication rate was 59% (22/37): 32% (n=14) major complications [fistula (3), perforation (3), aspiration pneumonia (5), laryngeal dyspnea (2), and bleeding (1)], and 27% (n=10) minor complications [pain (7) or dysphonia (3)]. A multivariate analysis confirmed a higher risk of major complications in cases of benign stenosis (odds ratio=5.2; 95% confidence interval, 1.05-25.90; P=0.04). Recurrent dysphagia occurred in 15 patients (obstruction=7, migration=8).

CONCLUSIONS

The NSECSC does not appear less morbid than standard SEMS in the cervical esophageal area, but could be useful in malignant indications as it is well-tolerated and offers effective palliation of the dysphagia. However, this device should not be used in benign cervical esophageal strictures or fistulas.

Partially covered self-expandable metallic stent for postoperative benign strictures associated with laparoscopy-assisted gastrectomy

BACKGROUND

A partially covered self-expandable metallic stent (PCSEMS) is of proven benefit in palliation of unresectable or inoperable malignant gastric outlet obstruction. However, its use in patients with benign anastomotic stricture after laparoscopy-assisted gastrectomy (LAG) is not well established.

METHODS

Patients who between May 2007 and June 2012 underwent PCSEMS placement for management of benign gastrointestinal obstruction after LAG were included in this retrospective analysis. The primary outcomes were the technical success and clinical success of the PCSEMS. The secondary outcomes were procedure-related complications and PCSEMS dysfunction.

RESULTS

Eleven patients (six women, five men, mean age 53.5 years, range 15-76 years) underwent successful placement of a PCSEMS for management of benign anastomotic strictures after LAG and were followed-up for a mean of 20.6 months (range 7.9-55.6 months). The mean gastric outlet obstruction scoring system (GOOSS) score was 0.36 before PCSEMS placement and 1.55 (p = 0.010) 24-48 h after PCSEMS placement. All of the patients were able to tolerate a solid diet (GOOSS score 3) after 1 week. There were no major or minor procedure-related complications. Stent dysfunction occurred in four patients (three distal migrations, one proximal migration), and stent removal was successful in all of the remaining patients after a mean of 2.0 months (1.1-3.0 months). Obstructive symptoms recurred in two patients (one after proximal migration, one after stent removal) and were treated successfully with PCSEMS reinsertion and balloon dilation.

CONCLUSIONS

A PCSEMS may be a feasible and effective option for management of benign anastomotic strictures after LAG which could avoid secondary surgery.

Evaluation of efficacy of endoscopic incision method in postoperative benign anastomotic strictures of gastrointestinal system

INTRODUCTION

Postoperative benign anastomotic strictures (POBAS) which develop after surgical resections of the gastrointestinal system (GIS) present with symptoms depending on location of the stricture. Diagnosis is confirmed by endoscopic and radiological methods. Although bougie or balloon dilatation is preferred in management, the endoscopic incision method (EIM) is also used with considerable success. In this trial, we aimed to evaluate EIM, which is one of the endoscopic dilatation techniques used in postoperative anastomotic stricture of GIS.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A total of 20 POBAS patients, 12 men and 8 women, subjected to EIM intervention for strictures, were enrolled in the trial. The number of patients with upper GIS strictures was 6 (30%), while the number of cases with lower GIS strictures was 14 (70%).

RESULTS

Dilatation of the stricture was achieved in 15 (75%) patients with one treatment session, while more than one session of EIM was needed in 5 (25%) cases. Mean duration of follow-up of patients was 10.65 ±5.86 (0-25) months. Procedure-related complications developed in 8 patients. Among them, 7 were minor complications and improved without any treatment. In only 1 (5%) patient, perforation was observed as a major complication. Following EIM, recurrence of POBAS was observed in 5 (25%) patients. The following parameters were found to have an impact on successful outcome in EIM: presence or absence of a tortuous lumen in POBAS (p = 0.035) and length of stricture (p = 0.02), complications during the procedure (if any), and presence of single or multiple strictures.

CONCLUSIONS

Endoscopic incision method may be regarded as a favorable approach among first choice treatment alternatives in uncomplicated anastomotic strictures of GIS, or it may be used as an adjunctive dilatation method.

Fully versus partially covered self-expandable metal stents in benign esophageal strictures

Self-expandable plastic stents are currently recommended for refractory benign esophageal strictures but they show disappointing results in terms of migration and long-term efficacy. We report here our experience in the management of benign esophageal strictures with partially covered (PCSEMS) and fully covered self-expandable metal stents (FCSEMS). We performed a retrospective analysis of self-expandable metal stent (SEMS) placements for benign esophageal strictures from 1998 to 2011 in Rouen University Hospital. Twenty-two patients (15 men, 7 women) attempted 40 esophageal SEMS placements (17 PCSEMS, 23 FCSEMS) during this period. All technical complications were migrations. Migration was noted after 3/17 PCSEMS (17.6%) and 4/23 FCSEMS placement (17.4%, P = ns). Clinical complications occurred after 6/17 PCSEMS and 2/23 FCSEMS placements (35.3% vs. 8.7%, P = 0.053). PCSEMS caused two major complications (fistulae) whereas FCSEMS did not cause any major complication (11.7% vs. 0%). Mean dysphagia score was significantly lower after SEMS placement (1.68 vs. 3.08, P < 0.001) with similar results for PCSEMS and FCSEMS. Stent placement resulted in long-term clinical success for 23.5% of PCSEMS and 34.7% of FCSEMS (P = 0.0505). FCSEMS provide satisfying clinical success rate with an acceptable complication rate and they could constitute a relevant therapeutic option in the management of benign esophageal strictures.

Stent-in-stent technique for removal of embedded partially covered self-expanding metal stents

BACKGROUND

Removal of embedded partially covered self-expanding metal stents (PCSEMS) is associated with an increased risk of adverse events compared with removal of fully covered self-expanding stents (FCSES) due to tissue ingrowth. Successful removal of embedded PCSEMS has been described by the stent-in-stent (SIS) technique.

AIMS

To report the first US experience from three high-volume quaternary care centers on the safety and efficacy of the SIS technique for removal of embedded PCSEMS.

METHODS

Retrospective study of outcomes for consecutive patients who underwent the SIS for removal of embedded PCSEMS over a 5-year period.

RESULTS

Twenty-seven embedded PCSEMS were successfully removed using the SIS technique (100 %) from 25 patients (11 males), median age 65 (range 37-80). All stents were successfully removed in one endoscopic session (no repeat SIS procedures were required for persistently embedded stents). The embedded PCSEMS had been in situ for a median of 76 days (range 26-501). Median SIS dwell time (FCSES in situ of PCSEMS) was 13 days (interquartile range 8-16 days; range 4-212 days). One adverse event (self-limited bleeding) occurred during a median follow-up period of 3 months (range 1-32). No patients died, required surgery, or had long-term disability due to adverse events attributed to the SIS technique. Twelve patients required additional interventions following SIS procedure for persistence or recurrence of the underlying pathology.

CONCLUSION

When performed by experienced endoscopists, safe and effective removal of embedded PCSEMS can be achieved via the SIS technique.

Closure of benign leaks, perforations, and fistulas with temporary placement of fully covered metal stents: a retrospective analysis

INTRODUCTION

Partially covered self-expanding metal stents (SEMS), have been suggested as an alternative to surgery in the treatment of esophageal fistulas of benign etiology. Nevertheless, uncomplicated removal remains difficult. The use of fully covered (FC) SEMSs could solve this problem.

OBJECTIVES

To review our experience with FC-SEMS placement in patients with benign upper gastrointestinal leaks or perforations. We wanted to assess successful closure of the perforations and short-term and long-term complications.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Multicenter study, including 3 tertiary centers. Retrospective review of patients who underwent FC-SEMS placement for benign perforations.

RESULTS

Eighty-eight stents were placed in 56 patients. We achieved leak closure in 44 patients (78.6%). There were 18 migrations. All of them could be solved endoscopically. A severe septic situation was associated with a higher mortality rate (27.6% vs. 7.4%; P=0.049) and a lower success rate (34.5% vs. 7.4%; P=0.088), compared with those patients who did not present severe sepsis. However, these differences could not be confirmed by multivariable analysis. The results in the subgroup of 11 patients with leaks after sleeve gastrectomy were also good (73% success without surgery and 0% mortality).

CONCLUSIONS

Temporary placement of FC-SEMS for benign perforations, fistulas, and leaks is feasible in sealing the leaks. All migrations could be solved endoscopically. It is very important to insert the stent before sepsis is established. This article also would be an addition to the growing body of literature supporting stenting as a good alternative if not standard approach to controlling these leaks.

Literature Analysis of the Treatment of Benign Esophageal Disease with Stent

To analyze the efficacy and safety of benign esophageal disease used biodegradable (BD) stent or metal stent. The English literatures of benign esophageal disease that were treated by biodegradable or metal stents implantation were retrieved and summarized. In all 323 benign esophageal disease, the most common etiologies were benign refractory stricture, surgical anastomotic stricture and esophageal fistula/leak/perforation, but the main characteristics between the two groups were not significantly different. One hundred fifty-four cases were completely healed by using BD stents or self-expandable metal stents (SEMS) (47.7 %). Clinical success was achieved in 47.7 % of all patients and there was no significant difference between BD stents (51 %) and SEMS (46.2 %) (P = 0.472), while stent migration occurred more frequently with SEMS (33.9 %) than with BD stent (19.6 %) (P ≤ 0.05), and tissue in- or overgrowth occurred more frequently with SEMS (22.2 %) than with BD stents (8.8 %) (P ≤ 0.05). Furthermore, the time about degradation of BD stents in esophageal was longer than removal of SEMS from the esophagus (P ≤ 0.05). Placement of BD stents or SEMS provides effective and safe relief for benign esophageal disease. Clinical success and mortality were not significantly different. BD stents offers an advantage of fewer complications. Although stent placement is a viable strategy in patients with benign esophageal disease, the ideal treatment strategy and further randomized trials with large number of patients are needed.

Refractory esophageal strictures: what to do when dilation fails

Benign esophageal strictures arise from a diversity of causes, for example esophagogastric reflux, esophageal resection, radiation therapy, ablative therapy, or the ingestion of a corrosive substance. Most strictures can be treated successfully with endoscopic dilation using bougies or balloons, with only a few complications. Nonetheless, approximately one third of patients develop recurrent symptoms after dilation within the first year. The majority of these patients are managed with repeat dilations, depending on their complexity. Dilation combined with intra lesional steroid injections can be considered for peptic strictures, while incisional therapy has been demonstrated to be effective for Schatzki rings and anastomotic strictures. When these therapeutic options do not resolve the stenosis, stent placement should be considered. Self bougienage can be proposed to a selected group of patients with a proximal stenosis. As a final step surgery is an option, but even then the risk of stricture formation at the anastomotic site remains. This chapter reviews refractory benign esophageal strictures and the treatment options that are currently available.

Stricture occurring after endoscopic submucosal dissection for esophageal and gastric tumors

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) is a widely accepted treatment for early gastric and esophageal cancer. Compared to endoscopic mucosal resection, ESD has the advantage of enabling en bloc removal of tumors regardless of their size. However, ESD can result in a large artificial ulcer, which may lead to a considerable deformity. Circumferential mucosal defects of more than three-fourths the esophageal circumference, long longitudinal mucosal defects (>30 mm), and lesions in the upper esophagus are significant risk factors for the development of post-ESD strictures of the esophagus. In the stomach, a circumferential mucosal defects more than three-fourths in extent and longitudinal mucosal defects >5 cm are risk factors of post-ESD stricture. If scheduled early, regular endoscopic balloon dilation is effective in controlling and preventing post-ESD stricture. Moreover, intralesional steroid injections or oral steroids can achieve remission of dysphagia or reduce the need for repeated endoscopic balloon dilation. However, further study is needed to improve the prevention of stricture formation.

Prevention and treatment of esophageal stenosis after endoscopic submucosal dissection for early esophageal cancer

Endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD) for the treatment of esophageal mucosal lesions is associated with a risk of esophageal stenosis, especially for near-circumferential or circumferential esophageal mucosal defects. Here, we review historic and modern studies on the prevention and treatment of esophageal stenosis after ESD. These methods include prevention via pharmacological treatment, endoscopic autologous cell transplantation, endoscopic esophageal dilatation, and stent placement. This short review will focus on direct prevention and treatment, which may help guide the way forward.

Double-type metallic stents efficacy for the management of post-operative fistulas, leakages, and perforations of the upper gastrointestinal tract

INTRODUCTION

The management of post-operative anastomotic leakage and fistulas of the upper GI tract remains challenging. Fully covered stents are used despite a high risk of migration because of a better removability. The goal of our study was to evaluate the effectiveness of this new type of endoscopic stent in this indication. The secondary objective was to determine the ability of withdrawing this stent.

METHODS

Thirty-six patients treated for upper GI fistula using a double-type metallic stent (DTMS) (Taewoong, Korea) for a benign indication were included in this retrospective study. This stent associates an outer uncovered metallic stent, decreasing the risk of migration, to an inner fully covered stent that ensured its tightness. The DTMS was removed after 4 weeks of treatment.

RESULTS

Twenty-four patients had a post-operative fistula (15 sleeve gastrectomies), eight had an anastomotic leakage, and four had an esophageal perforation. Seventeen patients underwent a previous failed stenting, and fourteen had an associated treatment with OTSC clips. A final complete healing was achieved in twenty-six patients (72%). For patients with fistulas, the overall success rate was 66.6% (16/24) mostly in case of post sleeve fistula (80%), and it was 75% (6/8) for patients with anastomotic leakages (3/4). We reached a primary success (one session) in twenty-one cases (58.3%), and a second session was required in five cases. All the stents were removed without complications after a median stenting time of 32 [20-71] days. The spontaneous migration rate was 16.6%.

CONCLUSION

This new double-type stent is a new and efficient way to treat post-operative fistulas and leakages in the upper GI tract. The stents were always removable despite the external uncovered part with a low migration rate.

Systematic review of self-expanding stents in the management of benign colorectal obstruction

AIM

Colorectal obstruction due to benign disease is likely to become more prevalent. Self-expanding stents have been shown to be effective in reducing morbidity and allowing one-stage resection or improved palliation in colorectal cancer. This review assessed the use of self-expanding stents in benign colorectal obstruction.

METHOD

A systematic review was performed using PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Library. Keywords included: 'benign disease' 'colorectal obstruction', 'stent', 'endoprosthesis' and 'prosthesis' Original articles from all relevant listings were sourced. These were hand searched for further articles of relevance. The main outcome measures assessed were technical and clinical success, perforation, reobstruction and stoma avoidance in the bridge to surgery population.

RESULTS

The search strategy identified 130 articles; the 21 included studies yielded a pooled analysis of 122 patients. Diverticulitis was the predominant aetiology (66/122, 54%). Technical success was achieved in 115/122 (94%) and clinical success in 108/120 (87%) patients. Overall, the perforation rate was 12% (15/122) and the reobstruction rate was 14% (17/122). A stoma was avoided in 48% (23/48) of bridge to surgery patients. Perforation and stoma avoidance in the bridge to surgery group were worse with an aetiology of diverticulitis.

CONCLUSION

Complication rates in stenting for benign colorectal obstruction are higher than for malignant obstruction. On the basis of limited published evidence, stenting cannot be recommended for benign colorectal obstruction.

Preventing stricture formation by covered esophageal stent placement after endoscopic submucosal dissection for early esophageal cancer

OBJECTIVE

We aimed to evaluate the efficacy and safety of fully covered esophageal stent placement for preventing esophageal strictures after endoscopic submucosal dissection (ESD).

METHODS

Twenty-two patients with a mucosal defects that exceeded 75 % of the circumference of the esophagus after ESD treatment for superficial esophageal squamous cell carcinomas were grouped according to the type of mucosal defect and randomized to undergo fully covered esophageal stent placement post-ESD (group A, n = 11) or no stent placement (group B, n = 11). In group A, the esophageal stents were removed 8 weeks post-ESD. Endoscopy was performed when patients reported dysphagia symptoms and at 12 weeks post-ESD in patients without symptoms. Savary-Gilliard dilators were used for bougie dilation in patients experiencing esophageal stricture in both groups, and we compared the rates of post-ESD strictures and the need for bougie dilation procedures.

RESULTS

The proportion of patients who developed a stricture was significantly lower in group A (18.2 %, n = 2) than in group B (72.7 %, n = 8) (P < 0.05). Moreover, the number of bougie dilation procedures was significantly lower in group A (mean 0.45, range 0-3) than in group B (mean 3.9, range 0-17) (P < 0.05). The two patients in group A who experienced stricture also had stent displacement.

CONCLUSIONS

Esophageal stents are a safe and effective method of preventing esophageal strictures in cases where >75 % of the circumference of the esophagus has mucosal defects after ESD treatment for early esophageal cancer.

Stents for benign and malignant esophageal strictures

This paper presents commentaries on endotherapy for esophageal perforation/leaks; treatment of esophageal perforation; whether esophageal stents should be used for treating benign esophageal strictures; what determines the optimal stenting period in benign esophageal strictures/leaks; how to choose an esophageal stent; how a new fistula secondary to an esophageal stent should be treated; which strategy should be adopted when a fistula of a cervical anastomosis occurs; intralesional steroids for refractory esophageal strictures; balloon and bougie dilators for esophageal strictures and predictors of response to dilation; whether refractory strictures from different etiologies respond differently to endotherapy; surgical therapy of benign esophageal strictures; and whether stenoses following severe esophageal burns should be treated by esophageal resection or esophageal bypass.

Endoscopic repair of post-surgical gastrointestinal complications

Complications following gastrointestinal surgery may require re-intervention, can lead to prolonged hospitalization, and significantly increase health costs. Some complications, such as anastomotic leakage, fistula, and stricture require a multidisciplinary approach. Therapeutic endoscopy may play a pivotal role in these conditions, allowing minimally invasive treatment. Different endoscopic approaches, including fibrin glue injection, endoclips, self-expanding stents, and endoscopic vacuum-assisted devices have been introduced for both anastomotic leakage and fistula treatment. Similarly endoscopic treatments, such as endoscopic dilation, incisional therapy, and self-expanding stents have been used for anastomotic strictures. All these techniques can be safely performed by skilled endoscopists, and may achieve a high technical success rate in both the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract. Here we will review the endoscopic management of post-surgical complications; these techniques should be considered as first-line approach in selected patients, allowing to avoid re-operation, reduce hospital stay, and decrease costs.

Evidence-based recommendations on upper gastrointestinal tract stenting: a report from the stent study group of the korean society of gastrointestinal endoscopy

Endoscopic stents have evolved dramatically over the past 20 years. With the introduction of uncovered self-expanding metal stents in the early 1990s, they are primarily used to palliate symptoms of malignant obstruction in patients with inoperable gastrointestinal (GI) cancer. At present, stents have emerged as an effective, safe, and less invasive alternative for the treatment of malignant GI obstruction. Clinical decisions about stent placement should be made based on the exact understanding of the patient's condition. These recommendations based on a critical review of the available data and expert consensus are made for the purpose of providing endoscopists with information about stent placement. These can be helpful for management of patients with inoperable cancer or various nonmalignant conditions in the upper GI tract.