1
|
He S. Relationship of Depth Adaptation Between Disparity-Specified Plaids and Their Components. Iperception 2018; 9:2041669518799763. [PMID: 30245800 PMCID: PMC6144519 DOI: 10.1177/2041669518799763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2017] [Accepted: 08/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
In the luminance domain, studies show that perceived contrasts of plaids are a nonlinear summation of their components. In the disparity domain, perceived depth has been studied by using a depth adaptation paradigm with simple surfaces; however, the relationship between depth adaptation between plaids and their components has not been investigated. To clarify this, combinations of disparity-defined horizontal corrugation (marked as horizontal) and disparity-defined plaids as adaptor-probe pairs were used. Three experiments were performed: The first two compared the aftereffects between horizontal-horizontal and plaid-horizontal pairs (Comparison 1) and between horizontal-plaid and plaid-plaid pairs (Comparison 2). Experiments 1 and 2 controlled the plaids to have the same and doubled peak-to-trough amplitudes as the horizontal corrugation, respectively. In Comparison 1, the horizontal or horizontally oriented component of the plaids was adapted. In Comparison 2, the plaid adaptor or horizontally oriented component of the plaid test stimuli was adapted. Thus, depth adaptation may be linked to cyclopean-oriented depth-from-disparity bandpass filters. The depth adaptation degree was determined by the adaptation of amplitudes of the similar oriented channels between the adaptation and test stimuli. Experiment 3 compared the aftereffects between noise-horizontal and horizontal-horizontal pairs. Since the noise adaptor contained multispatial frequency channels, only the channels with similar spatial frequencies as the horizontal corrugation were adapted, thus causing smaller depth aftereffects.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shufang He
- Graduate School of Engineering, Kochi University of Technology, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Grossberg S. How Does the Cerebral Cortex Work? Development, Learning, Attention, and 3-D Vision by Laminar Circuits of Visual Cortex. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2016; 2:47-76. [PMID: 17715598 DOI: 10.1177/1534582303002001003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
A key goal of behavioral and cognitive neuroscience is to link brain mechanisms to behavioral functions. The present article describes recent progress toward explaining how the visual cortex sees. Visual cortex, like many parts of perceptual and cognitive neocortex, is organized into six main layers of cells, as well as characteristic sublamina. Here it is proposed how these layered circuits help to realize processes of development, learning, perceptual grouping, attention, and 3-D vision through a combination of bottom-up, horizontal, and top-down interactions. A main theme is that the mechanisms which enable development and learning to occur in a stable way imply properties of adult behavior. These results thus begin to unify three fields: infant cortical development, adult cortical neurophysiology and anatomy, and adult visual perception. The identified cortical mechanisms promise to generalize to explain how other perceptual and cognitive processes work.
Collapse
|
3
|
Abstract
For stereo-curvature aftereffect (sCAE), there is no agreement on whether adaptation occurs at the disparity-specified stage, the percept-specified stage, or both. Additionally, it remains uncertain whether retinal-position-dependent sCAE can be induced by possible adaptation to disparity-specified sources. Our study aimed to investigate the dependency and processing levels of adaptation underlying sCAE using dynamic spherical adaptation stimuli with static fixation. Experiment I examined the dependency by dynamically altering the location or size of adaptation stimuli. Experiment 2 investigated the adaptation levels via three sub-experiments: Experiment 2.1 examined how eccentricity influenced adaptation strength using static adaptation stimuli with different eccentricities, Experiment 2.2 tested a hypothesis about adaptation to a percept-specified primitive shape index (PSI) using dynamic size change of adaptation stimuli, and Experiment 2.3 tested another hypothesis on adapting disparity-specified average disparity information (ADI) using dynamic PSI change of adaptation stimuli. The results showed retinal-position-dependent and scale-independent sCAE. In addition to a possible eccentricity effect, the retinal-position dependence can result from ADI adaptation while the scale independence can be attributed to PSI adaptation. Therefore, sCAE is caused by adaptation at both the disparity-specified and percept-specified stages. Additionally, sCAE endows two coexisting adaptation processes with one dependent on retinal position and one independent of retinal position.
Collapse
|
4
|
van der Kooij K, Domini F, te Pas SF. Surface boundaries do not constrain a depth aftereffect. Vision Res 2010; 51:138-46. [PMID: 20951720 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.10.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2010] [Revised: 10/09/2010] [Accepted: 10/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
We investigated whether a depth aftereffect is better explained in a surface-based organization of depth representation (Nakayama & Shimojo, 1992), where depth is represented in conjunction with surface features, rather than a coordinate-based organization, where depth is represented in conjunction with spatial position. Observers adapted to a stereogram depicting a surface with reference plane and were tested with a surface with either the same contour or position as the adaptation surface. The aftereffect did not depend on test surface position or contour. Thus, a depth aftereffect can be caused by a mechanism that does not depend on grouping by surface contour or position.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- K van der Kooij
- Experimental Psychology, Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
5
|
Grossberg S, Kuhlmann L, Mingolla E. A neural model of 3D shape-from-texture: Multiple-scale filtering, boundary grouping, and surface filling-in. Vision Res 2007; 47:634-72. [PMID: 17275061 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.10.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2006] [Revised: 10/15/2006] [Accepted: 10/22/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
A neural model is presented of how cortical areas V1, V2, and V4 interact to convert a textured 2D image into a representation of curved 3D shape. Two basic problems are solved to achieve this: (1) Patterns of spatially discrete 2D texture elements are transformed into a spatially smooth surface representation of 3D shape. (2) Changes in the statistical properties of texture elements across space induce the perceived 3D shape of this surface representation. This is achieved in the model through multiple-scale filtering of a 2D image, followed by a cooperative-competitive grouping network that coherently binds texture elements into boundary webs at the appropriate depths using a scale-to-depth map and a subsequent depth competition stage. These boundary webs then gate filling-in of surface lightness signals in order to form a smooth 3D surface percept. The model quantitatively simulates challenging psychophysical data about perception of prolate ellipsoids [Todd, J., & Akerstrom, R. (1987). Perception of three-dimensional form from patterns of optical texture. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance, 13(2), 242-255]. In particular, the model represents a high degree of 3D curvature for a certain class of images, all of whose texture elements have the same degree of optical compression, in accordance with percepts of human observers. Simulations of 3D percepts of an elliptical cylinder, a slanted plane, and a photo of a golf ball are also presented.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Grossberg
- Department of Cognitive and Neural Systems, Center for Adaptive Systems, Boston University, 677 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
6
|
Noest AJ, van Ee R, van den Berg AV. Direct extraction of curvature-based metric shape from stereo by view-modulated receptive fields. BIOLOGICAL CYBERNETICS 2006; 95:455-86. [PMID: 16955316 DOI: 10.1007/s00422-006-0101-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2006] [Accepted: 06/30/2006] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Any computation of metric surface structure from horizontal disparities depends on the viewing geometry, and analysing this dependence allows us to narrow down the choice of viable schemes. For example, all depth-based or slant-based schemes (i.e. nearly all existing models) are found to be unrealistically sensitive to natural errors in vergence. Curvature-based schemes avoid these problems and require only moderate, more robust view-dependent corrections to yield local object shape, without any depth coding. This fits the fact that humans are strikingly insensitive to global depth but accurate in discriminating surface curvature. The latter also excludes coding only affine structure. In view of new adaptation results, our goal becomes to directly extract retinotopic fields of metric surface curvatures (i.e. avoiding intermediate disparity curvature). To find a robust neural realisation, we combine new exact analysis with basic neural and psychophysical constraints. Systematic, step-by-step 'design' leads to neural operators which employ a novel family of 'dynamic' receptive fields (RFs), tuned to specific (bi-)local disparity structure. The required RF family is dictated by the non-Euclidean geometry that we identify as inherent in cyclopean vision. The dynamic RF-subfield patterns are controlled via gain modulation by binocular vergence and version, and parameterised by a cell-specific tuning to slant. Our full characterisation of the neural operators invites a range of new neurophysiological tests. Regarding shape perception, the model inverts widely accepted interpretations: It predicts the various types of errors that have often been mistaken for evidence against metric shape extraction.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- A J Noest
- Functional Neurobiology Department, Utrecht University, NEST, Limalaan 30, 3584-CL, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Knapen T, van Ee R. Slant perception, and its voluntary control, do not govern the slant aftereffect: multiple slant signals adapt independently. Vision Res 2006; 46:3381-92. [PMID: 16698056 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2006.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2005] [Revised: 02/10/2006] [Accepted: 03/29/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Although it is known that high-level spatial attention affects adaptation for a variety of stimulus features (including binocular disparity), the influence of voluntary attentional control-and the associated awareness-on adaptation has remained unexplored. We developed an ambiguous surface slant adaptation stimulus with conflicting monocular and binocular slant signals that instigated two mutually exclusive surface percepts with opposite slants. Using intermittent stimulus removal, subjects were able to voluntarily select one of the two rivaling slant percepts for extended adaptation periods, enabling us to dissociate slant adaptation due to awareness from stimulus-induced slant adaptation. We found that slant aftereffects (SAE) for monocular and binocular test patterns had opposite signs when measured simultaneously. There was no significant influence of voluntarily controlled perceptual state during adaptation on SAEs of monocular or binocular signals. In addition, the magnitude of the binocular SAE did not correlate with the magnitude of perceived slant. Using adaptation to one slant cue, and testing with the other cue, we demonstrated that multiple slant signals adapt independently. We conclude that slant adaptation occurs before the level of slant awareness. Our findings place the site of stereoscopic slant adaptation after disparity and eye posture are interpreted for slant [as demonstrated by Berends et al. (Berends, E. M., Liu, B., & Schor, C. M. (2005). Stereo-slant adaptation is high level and does not involve disparity coding. Journal of Vision 5 (1), 71-80), using that disparity scales with distance], but before other slant signals are integrated for the resulting awareness of the presented slant stimulus.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tomas Knapen
- Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, Princetonplein 5, 3584CC Utrecht, The Netherlands
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Taya S, Sato M, Nakamizo S. Stereoscopic depth aftereffects without retinal position correspondence between adaptation and test stimuli. Vision Res 2005; 45:1857-66. [PMID: 15797775 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2005.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2004] [Revised: 01/20/2005] [Accepted: 01/20/2005] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
To clarify whether stereo-slant aftereffects are independent of stimulated retinal position, two experiments compared the magnitude of aftereffects between the following two conditions: when the adaptation and test stimulus fell on (1) the same retinal position, and (2) on different retinal positions separated by 0.5 degrees -20 degrees . In Experiment 1, disc- or ring-shaped surface consisting of random-dots was presented at the central or peripheral visual fields. In Experiment 2, rectangular surface was presented at the upper or lower visual fields. After two minutes inspection of a random-dot stereogram depicting a +/-30 degrees slanted surface, the observer adjusted the slant of the test stimulus to appear fronto-parallel. The results of the experiments showed that significant aftereffects were observed similarly in both conditions. Moreover, the separation nor the stimulus shape scarcely affected the magnitude of the aftereffects. Based on these results we concluded that the depth processing mechanism which operates independently from the stimulated retinal position is responsible for the depth aftereffects we found.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Shuichiro Taya
- Department of Psychology, Kyushu University, 6-19-1, Hakozaki, Higashiku, Fukuoka 812-8581, Japan.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Grossberg S, Swaminathan G. A laminar cortical model for 3D perception of slanted and curved surfaces and of 2D images: development, attention, and bistability. Vision Res 2004; 44:1147-87. [PMID: 15050817 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2003.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2003] [Revised: 12/16/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
A model of laminar visual cortical dynamics proposes how 3D boundary and surface representations arise from viewing slanted and curved 3D objects and 2D images. The 3D boundary representations emerge from non-classical receptive field interactions within intracortical and intercortical feedback circuits. Such non-classical interactions within cortical areas V1 and V2 contextually disambiguate classical receptive field responses to ambiguous visual cues using cells that are sensitive to colinear contours, angles, and disparity gradients. Remarkably, these cell types can all be explained as variants of a unified perceptual grouping circuit whose most familiar example is a 2D colinear bipole cell. Model simulations show how this circuit can develop cell selectivity to colinear contours and angles, how slanted surfaces can activate 3D boundary representations that are sensitive to angles and disparity gradients, how 3D filling-in occurs across slanted surfaces, how a 2D Necker cube image can be represented in 3D, and how bistable 3D Necker cube percepts occur. The model also explains data about slant aftereffects and 3D neon color spreading. It shows how chemical transmitters that habituate, or depress, in an activity-dependent way can help to control development and also to trigger bistable 3D percepts and slant aftereffects. Attention can influence which of these percepts is perceived by propagating selectively along object boundaries.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Grossberg
- Department of Cognitive and Neural Systems and Center for Adaptive Systems, Boston University, 677 Beacon Street, Boston, MA 02215, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Abstract
There are a variety of stereoscopic after-effects in which exposure to a stimulus with a particular slant or curvature affects the perceived slant or curvature of a subsequently presented stimulus. These after-effects have been explained as a consequence of fatigue (a decrease in responsiveness) among neural mechanisms that are tuned to particular disparities or patterns of disparity. In fact, a given disparity pattern is consistent with numerous slants or curvatures; to determine slant or curvature, the visual system must take the viewing distance into account. We took advantage of this property to examine whether the mechanisms underlying the stereoscopic curvature after-effect are tuned to particular disparity patterns or to some other property such as surface curvature. The results clearly support the second hypothesis. Thus, 3D after-effects appear to be caused by adaptation among mechanisms specifying surface shape rather than among mechanisms signaling the disparity pattern.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Domini
- Department of Cognitive and Linguistic Sciences, Brown University, Providence, RI 02912, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether adaptation can occur to disparity per se. The adapting stimuli were large random-dot patterns of which the two half-images were transformed such that the depth effects induced by the vertical transformations were nulled by horizontal transformations. Thus, the adapting stimuli were perceptually the same, whereas the disparity fields differed from each other. The adapting stimuli were presented for five minutes. During that period, the percept of a fronto-parallel surface did not change. After the adapting period, subjects perceived a thin untransformed strip as either slanted or curved depending on the adapting transformation. The thin strips provided negligible information about the vertical disparity field. In a forced-choice task we measured the amount of horizontal transformation that was required to null the acquired adaptation. We found that the amounts of horizontal transformation required to perceive the test strip fronto-parallel were significantly different from zero. We conclude that the visual system can adapt to disparity signals in the absence of a perceptual drive.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- E M Berends
- Helmholtz Institute, Utrecht University, P.O. Box 80000, 3508 TA, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Gillam BJ, Blackburn SG. Surface separation decreases stereoscopic slant but a monocular aperture increases it. Perception 1999; 27:1267-86. [PMID: 10505174 DOI: 10.1068/p271267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
When an isolated surface is stereoscopically slanted around its vertical axis, perceived slant is attenuated relative to prediction, whereas when a frontal-plane surface is placed above or below the slanted surface, slant is close to the predicted magnitude. Gillam et al (1988 Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 14 163-175) have argued that this slant enhancement is due to the introduction of a gradient of relative disparities across the abutment of the two surfaces which is a more effective stimulus for slant than is the gradient of absolute disparities present when the slanted surface is presented alone. To test this claim we varied the separation between the two surfaces, along either the vertical or depth axis. Since these manipulations have been reported to reduce the depth response to individual relative disparities, they should similarly affect any slant response based on a gradient of relative disparities. As predicted, increasing the separation, vertically or in depth, systematically reduced both the perceived slant of the stereoscopically slanted surface and also the stereo contrast slant induced in the frontal-plane surface. These results are not predicted by alternative accounts of slant enhancement (disparity-gradient contrast, normalisation, frame of reference). We also demonstrated that sidebands of monocular texture, when added to equate the half-image widths of the slanted surface, increased the perceived slant of this surface (particularly when presented alone) and reduced the contrast slant. Monocular texture, by signalling occlusion, appeared to provide absolute slant information which determined how the total relative slant perceived between the surfaces was allocated to each.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- B J Gillam
- School of Psychology, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia.
| | | |
Collapse
|
13
|
Lunn PD, Morgan MJ. Discrimination of the spatial derivatives of horizontal binocular disparity. JOURNAL OF THE OPTICAL SOCIETY OF AMERICA. A, OPTICS, IMAGE SCIENCE, AND VISION 1997; 14:360-371. [PMID: 9014355 DOI: 10.1364/josaa.14.000360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Observers discriminated the relative disparity, disparity gradient, and disparity curvature of surfaces defined by horizontal binocular disparity in random-dot stereograms. In experiment 1, thresholds for discriminating the depth of sinusoidal corrugations were very similar for different corrugation frequencies, despite large differences in disparity gradient and disparity curvature. Thus observers used a relative disparity cue in preference to a slant or curvature cue. Experiment 2 isolated the spatial derivatives of disparity by jittering the other available cues, using surfaces with square-wave, triangle-wave, and parabolic-wave profiles. Weber fractions were 4%-10% for relative disparity, 6%-12% for disparity gradient, and 15%-30% for disparity curvature. Experiment 3 confirmed this result for larger surfaces. The study supports the view that human stereoscopic vision aims to represent the local scene relative to the observer, at the expense of computing intrinsic properties of objects, such as curvature.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- P D Lunn
- Institute of Ophthalmology, University College, London, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Ryan C, Gillam B. Cue conflict and stereoscopic surface slant about horizontal and vertical axes. Perception 1994; 23:645-58. [PMID: 7845758 DOI: 10.1068/p230645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
The way in which a planar surface is defined or configured may affect its apparent slant about a given axis, and the magnitude of slant-axis anisotropies. The authors have previously suggested that (i) these within-axis and between-axis configuration effects may be attributable, in part at least, to the perspective-disparity conflict generated when geometrically frontoparallel configured surfaces are slanted stereoscopically; and (ii) that implicit contours, defined by line endings or conjunctions, may have effects analogous to those seen with explicit contours. These possibilities were directly examined in two experiments. In experiment 1, slant-axis anisotropy was progressively induced by adding horizontal lines to a vertical-line (zero anisotropy) grid under conditions of cue conflict; slants about the vertical (but not the horizontal) were attenuated-demonstrating a clear and systematic nexus between surface configuration and slant-axis anisotropy. The presence of regular implicit horizontals similarly and selectively attenuated the slant perceived about the vertical. In experiment 2, cue conflict was seen to exacerbate slant-axis anisotropy, but clearly could not fully account for it. There was an axis asymmetry in the effect of degrading implicit contours: degradation had a marked impact on perceived slant about the horizontal but not the vertical axis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- C Ryan
- James Cook University, Townsville, Queensland, Australia
| | | |
Collapse
|