Polymer Functionalization by RAFT Interchange

Here, we report a simple approach for end group functionalization of linear polymers and graft copolymers via an interchange process of reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization chain transfer agents (CTAs). The high functional group tolerance of the RAFT process allows a library of functionalities to be introduced. Moreover, this approach allows multiple functional groups to be installed simultaneously. Furthermore, as an alternative to end group analysis, we report the utility of the supernatant of the reaction mixture to determine the degree of functionalization.

ROS-responsive copolymer micelles for inflammation triggered delivery of ibuprofen

Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) are commonly used for the treatment of pain, inflammation and fever. However, most NSAIDs are poorly water soluble, making it difficult to be administered thus high doses are required to reach the intended therapeutic effect, resulting in associated side effects. In this study, ROS-responsive micellar systems based on a block copolymer consisting of methylpropyl thioether (MTPA) and N'N-dimethylacrylamide was developed and loaded with ibuprofen (IBU). Using lipopolysaccharide activated RAW 264.7 macrophage like cells, we demonstrated that IBU was released from the copolymer, specifically in the presence of ROS. Interestingly, IBU encapsulated in ROS-responsive nanoparticles exhibited greater anti-inflammatory potency compared to its free form. The work highlights the potential of the ROS-responsive micellar system developed in this work to be used as carrier of NSAIDs for the treatment of relevant inflammatory conditions.

End-functionalized polymers by controlled/living radical polymerizations: synthesis and applications

This review focuses on end-functionalized polymers synthesized by controlled/living radical polymerizations and the applications in fields including bioconjugate formation, surface modification, topology construction, and self-assembly.

Thiocarbonyl Chemistry in Polymer Science

Organised by reaction type, this review highlights the unique reactivity of thiocarbonyl (C=S) groups with radicals, anions, nucleophiles, electrophiles, in pericyclic reactions, and in the presence of light. In the...

Effective End-Group Modification of Star-Shaped PNVCL from Xanthate to Trithiocarbonate Avoiding Chemical Crosslinking

In this study, six-arm star-shaped poly(N-vinylcaprolactam) (PNVCL) polymers prepared by reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization were subjected to aminolysis reaction using hexylamine. Chemically crosslinked gels or highly end-functionalized star polymers can be obtained depending mainly on the type of solvent used during the transformation of the RAFT functional group. An increase in the viscosity of the solution was observed when the aminolysis was carried out in THF. In contrast, when the reaction was conducted in dichloromethane, chain-end thiol (PNVCL)6 star polymers could be obtained. Moreover, when purified (PNVCL-SH)6 star polymers are in contact with THF, the gelation occurs in just a few minutes, with an obvious increase in viscosity, to form physical gels that become chemically crosslinked gels after 12 h. Interestingly, when purified (PNVCL-SH)6 star polymers were stirred in distilled water, even at high aqueous solution concentration (40 mg/mL), there was no increase in the viscosity or gelation, and no evident gels were observed. The analysis of the hydrodynamic diameter (Dh) by dynamic light scattering (DLS) did not detect quantifiable change even after 4 days of stirring in water. On the other hand, the thiol groups in the (PNVCL-SH)6 star polymers were easily transformed into trithiocarbonate groups by addition of CS2 followed by benzyl bromide as demonstrated by UV-Vis spectroscopical analysis and GPC. After the modification, the (PNVCL)6 star polymers exhibit an intense yellow color typical of the absorption band of trithiocarbonate group at 308 nm. To further demonstrate the highly effective new trithiocarbonate end-functionality, the PNVCL polymers were successfully chain extended with N-isopropylacrylamide (NIPAM) to form six-arm star-shaped PNIPAM-b-PNVCL block copolymers. Moreover, the terminal thiol end-functionality in the (PNVCL-SH)6 star polymers was linked via disulfide bond formation to l-cysteine to further demonstrate its reactivity. Zeta potential analysis shows the pH-responsive behavior of these star polymers due to l-cysteine end-functionalization. By this using methodology and properly selecting the solvent, various environment-sensitive star polymers with different end-groups could be easily accessible.

Evaluating Nucleophile Byproduct Formation during Phosphine- and Amine-Promoted Thiol-Methyl Acrylate Reactions

The commonly accepted mechanism of nucleophile-initiated thiol-acrylate reactions requires the formation of undesired nucleophile byproducts. A systematic evaluation of the formation of such nucleophile byproducts has been carried out to understand the relationships between byproduct formation and nucleophile structure, stoichiometry, solvent, and reaction type. Three common nucleophiles for thiol-Michael reactions were investigated: dimethylphenylphosphine (DMPP), diethylamine (DEA), and hexylamine (HA). The formation of phosphonium ester and aza-Michael byproducts upon initiating a representative thiol-acrylate reaction between 1-hexanethiol and methyl acrylate at a range of initiator loading (0.01-10.0 equiv) and in different solvents (neat, DMSO, THF, and CHCl₃) was determined by ¹H NMR spectroscopy. The influence of reaction type was investigated by expanding from small molecule reactions to end group thiol-acrylate functionalization of PEG-diacrylate polymers and through investigations of polymer-polymer coupling reactions. Results indicate that the propensity of forming nucleophile byproducts varies with nucleophile type, solvent, and reaction type. Interestingly, for all but polymer-polymer ligation reactions, nucleophile byproduct formation is largely unobserved for nitrogen-centered nucleophiles DEA and HA and essentially nonexistent for the phorphorous-centered nucleophile DMPP. A rationale for the differences in nucleophile byproduct formation for DMPP, DEA, and HA is proposed and supported by experimental and computational analysis.

RAFT polymerization to form stimuli-responsive polymers

Stimuli-responsive polymers respond to a variety of external stimuli, which include optical, electrical, thermal, mechanical, redox, pH, chemical, environmental and biological signals. This paper is concerned with the process of forming such polymers by RAFT polymerization.

Addressing the mid-point of polymer chains for multiple functionalization purposes through sequential thiol–epoxy ‘click’ and esterification reactions

A synthetic strategy is devised for the preparation of mid-chain multifunctional polymers.

Preparation of glyco-silica materials via thiol-ene click chemistry for adsorption and separation

A saccharide bonding method based on thiol-ene chemistry was developed and the resulting glyco-silica materials demonstrated great potential in separation science.

Cooperative catalysis with block copolymer micelles: a combinatorial approach

A rapid approach to identifying complementary catalytic groups using combinations of functional polymers is presented. Amphiphilic polymers with "clickable" hydrophobic blocks were used to create a library of functional polymers, each bearing a single functionality. The polymers were combined in water, yielding mixed micelles. As the functional groups were colocalized in the hydrophobic microphase, they could act cooperatively, giving rise to new modes of catalysis. The multipolymer "clumps" were screened for catalytic activity, both in the presence and absence of metal ions. A number of catalyst candidates were identified across a wide range of model reaction types. One of the catalytic systems discovered was used to perform a number of preparative-scale syntheses. Our approach provides easy access to a range of enzyme-inspired cooperative catalysts.

RAFT-prepared α-difunctional poly(2-vinyl-4,4-dimethylazlactone)s and their derivatives: synthesis and effect of end-groups on aqueous inverse temperature solubility

Five R-group di-functional dithiobenzoates have been prepared and used in the reversible addition–fragmentation chain transfer polymerization of 2-vinyl-4,4-dimethylazlactone.

Thiol–ene “click” reactions and recent applications in polymer and materials synthesis: a first update

This contribution serves as an update to a previous review (Polym. Chem.2010,1, 17–36) and highlights recent applications of thiol–ene ‘click’ chemistry as an efficient tool for both polymer/materials synthesis as well as modification.

Size effects of self-assembled block copolymer spherical micelles and vesicles on cellular uptake in human colon carcinoma cells

Block copolymers, poly(oligo ethylene glycol methyl ether methacrylate)-block-poly(styrene), POEGMEMA-b-PS, with various block lengths were prepared via RAFT polymerization and subsequently self-assembled into various aggregates to investigate their uptake ability into cancer cells.

Endolytic, pH-responsive HPMA-b-(L-Glu) copolymers synthesized via sequential aqueous RAFT and ring-opening polymerizations

A facile synthetic pathway for preparing block copolymers with pH-responsive L-glutamic acid segments for membrane disruption is reported. Aqueous reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (aRAFT) polymerization was first used to prepare biocompatible, nonimmunogenic poly[N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide]. This macro chain transfer agent (CTA) was then converted into a macroinitiator via simultaneous aminolysis and thiol-ene Michael addition using the primary amine substituted N-(3-aminopropyl)methacrylamide. This macroinitiator was subsequently utilized in the ring-opening polymerization of the N-carboxyanhydride monomer of γ-benzyl-L-glutamate. After deprotection, the pH-dependent coil-to-helix transformations of the resulting HPMA-b-(L-Glu) copolymers were monitored via circular dichroism spectroscopy. HPMA segments confer water solubility and biocompatibility while the L-glutamic acid repeats provide reversible coil-to-helix transitions at endosomal pH values (~5-6). The endolytic properties of these novel [HPMA-b-(L-Glu)] copolymers and their potential as modular components in drug carrier constructs was demonstrated utilizing red blood cell hemolysis and fluorescein release from POPC vesicles.

Thiol–Thiosulfonate Chemistry in Polymer Science: Simple Functionalization of Polymers via Disulfide Linkages

Herein we highlight the reaction of thiols with thiosulfonates yielding asymmetric disulfides. The chapter begins with an overview of the synthesis and reactivity of functional thiosulfonates and is followed by a review of polymeric thiosulfonates. We then emphasize the novel use of thiosulfonates as trapping/functionalization agents for macromolecular thiols obtained from parent (co)polymers prepared by reversible addition‐fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) radical polymerization. We also note how such facile disulfide‐forming chemistries can be readily employed simultaneously with other highly efficient coupling chemistries with an emphasis on the concurrent reaction of activated esters with amines in the presence of thiosulfonates. Finally, we discuss the use of methyl disulfide (SSMe) functional/end‐modified (co)polymers as reagents for the formation of polymeric self‐assembled monolayers (polymer brushes) on metal surfaces such as nanoparticles and quantum dots.

Fundamentals of RAFT Polymerization

This chapter sets out to describe the fundamental aspects of radical polymerization with reversible addition-fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT polymerization). Following a description of the mechanism we describe aspects of the kinetics of RAFT polymerization, how to select a RAFT agent to achieve optimal control over polymer molecular weight, composition and architecture, and how to avoid side reactions which might lead to retardation or inhibition.

Synthesis, self-assembly, and pH-responsive behavior of (photo-crosslinked) star amphiphilic triblock copolymer

Conventional polymeric micelles employed as drug carriers suffer from the drawback of disaggregation when diluted into body fluids, giving rise to premature release of drugs. In this work, cinnamate was chosen as a crosslinker to overcome this issue and regulate pH response. A series of photo-crosslinkable star amphiphilic triblock copolymers, star poly(ε-caprolactone)-b-poly(2-cinnamoyloxyethyl methacrylate)-b-poly(2-(dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate) (SPCL-b-PCEMA-b-PDMAEMA), were prepared by combination of stepwise reversible addition-fragment chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization and carbodiimide-mediated coupling reaction. These star amphiphilic copolymers could self-assemble into core-shell-corona micelles. Facile photo crosslinking of the micelles was carried out via UV irradiation. The crosslinked micelles showed an improved stability determined by critical micelle concentration (CMC). The degree of photo crosslinking was easily regulated by tuning UV irradiation time, and the hydrodynamic diameters (D(h)) decreased with increasing degree of photo crosslinking. The pH responses of micelles were investigated by dynamic light scattering (DLS), indicating pH-induced swelling-shrinking behavior. For photo-crosslinked micelle, its capability of swelling-shrinking weakened with increasing crosslinking degree, suggesting that pH response was controlled by crosslinking density. This novel photo-crosslinked micelle system with adjustable pH response was expected to have potential as drug carriers for controlled release.

One-Pot Endgroup-Modification of Hydrophobic RAFT Polymers with Cyclodextrin by Thiol-ene Chemistry and the Subsequent Formation of Dynamic Core–Shell Nanoparticles Using Supramolecular Host–Guest Chemistry

Poly(methyl methacrylate) PMMA, synthesized using reversible addition fragmentation chain transfer (RAFT) polymerization, was heated in a solvent at 100°C for 24 h leading to the loss of the RAFT endfunctionality and the complete conversion into a vinyl group. Mono(6-deoxy-6-mercapto)-β-cyclodextrin (β-CD-SH) was subsequently clicked onto the polymer by a thiol-ene reaction leading to PMMA with one β-CD as a terminal group (PMMA70–β-CD). Meanwhile, a RAFT agent with an adamantyl group has been prepared for the polymerization of 2-hydroxyethyl acrylate (HEA) leading to PHEA95–Ada. Two processes were employed to generate core–shell nanoparticles from these two polymers: a one-step approach that employs a solution of both polymers at stoichiometric amounts in DMF, followed by the addition of water, and a two step process that uses PMMA solid particles with surface enriched with β-CD in water, which have a strong tendency to aggregate, followed by the addition of PHEA95–Ada in water. Both pathways led to stable core–shell nanoparticles of ~150 nm in size. Addition of free β-CD competed with the polymer bound β-CD releasing the PHEA hairs from the particle surface. As a result, the PMMA particles started agglomerating resulting in a cloudy solution. A similar effect was observed when heating the solution. Since the equilibrium constant between β-CD and adamantane decreases with increasing temperature, the stabilizing PHEA chains cleaved from the surface and the solution turned cloudy due to the aggregation of the naked PMMA spheres. This process was reversible and with decreasing temperature the core–shell nanoparticles formed again leading to a clear solution.