But wait, there’s more! Descriptions of new species and undescribed sexes of flattie spiders (Araneae, Selenopidae, Karaops) from Australia

Nineteen new species of Karaops are described: K. durrantorumsp. nov. (♂), K. morganoconnellisp. nov. (♀♂), K. joehaenerisp. nov. (♀), K. dalmanyisp. nov. (♀♂), K. garyodwyerisp. nov. (♂), K. dejongisp. nov. (♀♂), K. malumbusp. nov. (♀♂), K. conilurussp. nov. (♂), K. yumbubaarnjisp. nov. (♀♂), K. markharveyisp. nov. (♀♂), K. nitmiluksp. nov. (♀), K. kennerleyorumsp. nov. (♂), K. jawaywaysp. nov. (♀), K. mparntwesp. nov. (♀), K. larapintasp. nov. (♀), K. kwartatumasp. nov. (♂), K. madhawundusp. nov. (♀), and K. mareebasp. nov. (♀). The male of K. umiida Crews, 2013 was found to be misidentified and is now K. conilurussp. nov.Karaops yindjibarndisyn. nov. is a new synonym of K. nyiyaparli. Selenops australiensis L. Koch, 1875 is considered a nomen dubium because the holotype is an immature male, and the species previously referred to as K. australiensis (L. Koch, 1875) is here described as K. strayamatesp. nov. (♀♂). The males of K. marrayagong Crews & Harvey, 2011 and K. banyjima Crews, 2013 are described for the first time. To manage the growing diversity of the genus, most of the species have been placed in species groups, which are diagnosed. They are the Central Desert group, the strayamate group, the raveni group, the dawara group, the francesae group, the Kimberley group, and the Pilbara-Gascoyne group. New keys are provided to accommodate the new species, and new distribution maps and new records are provided for all species. Diagnoses and descriptions are emended where required. Images of live spiders, many not previously seen alive, and natural history information are also provided.

Correlation with a limited set of behavioral niches explains the convergence of somatic morphology in mygalomorph spiders

Understanding the drivers of morphological convergence requires investigation into its relationship with behavior and niche space, and such investigations in turn provide insights into evolutionary dynamics, functional morphology, and life history. Mygalomorph spiders (trapdoor spiders and their kin) have long been associated with high levels of morphological homoplasy, and many convergent features can be intuitively associated with different behavioral niches. Using genus-level phylogenies based on recent genomic studies and a newly assembled matrix of discrete behavioral and somatic morphological characters, we reconstruct the evolution of burrowing behavior in the Mygalomorphae, compare the influence of behavior and evolutionary history on somatic morphology, and test hypotheses of correlated evolution between specific morphological features and behavior. Our results reveal the simplicity of the mygalomorph adaptive landscape, with opportunistic, web-building taxa at one end, and burrowing/nesting taxa with structurally modified burrow entrances (e.g., a trapdoor) at the other. Shifts in behavioral niche, in both directions, are common across the evolutionary history of the Mygalomorphae, and several major clades include taxa inhabiting both behavioral extremes. Somatic morphology is heavily influenced by behavior, with taxa inhabiting the same behavioral niche often more similar morphologically than more closely related but behaviorally divergent taxa, and we were able to identify a suite of 11 somatic features that show significant correlation with particular behaviors. We discuss these findings in light of the function of particular morphological features, niche dynamics within the Mygalomorphae, and constraints on the mygalomorph adaptive landscape relative to other spiders.

Trapped indoors? Long-distance dispersal in mygalomorph spiders and its effect on species ranges

The Mygalomorphae includes tarantulas, trapdoor, funnel-web, purse-web and sheet-web spiders, species known for poor dispersal abilities. Here, we attempted to compile all the information available on their long-distance dispersal mechanisms from observations that are often spread throughout the taxonomic literature. Mygalomorphs can disperse terrestrially, and in some tarantulas, for example, spiderlings walk together in single files away from their maternal burrow, a mechanism limited in distance covered. Conversely, at least eight species disperse aerially, via dropping on drag lines from elevated positions and being passively blown off ('suspended ballooning'). The first record of this behaviour is 135 years old, but we still know very little about it. Phylogeographic studies suggest several occurrences of transcontinental dispersal in the evolutionary history of mygalomorphs, but these might result from contingent rafting events, rather than regular dispersal mechanisms. We use occurrence data to show that suspended ballooning increases the species ranges in Australian mygalomorph families where this behaviour has been recorded. We also identified Anamidae, Idiopidae, and especially Atracidae, as families that might employ suspended ballooning or another efficient but undiscovered dispersal mechanism. Finally, we suggest that molecular studies with mitochondrial genes will help disentangle behavioural limitations of dispersal from ecological or physical ones.

Phylogenetic Systematics and Evolution of the Spider Infraorder Mygalomorphae Using Genomic Scale Data

The infraorder Mygalomorphae is one of the three main lineages of spiders comprising over 3000 nominal species. This ancient group has a worldwide distribution that includes among its ranks large and charismatic taxa such as tarantulas, trapdoor spiders, and highly venomous funnel-web spiders. Based on past molecular studies using Sanger-sequencing approaches, numerous mygalomorph families (e.g., Hexathelidae, Ctenizidae, Cyrtaucheniidae, Dipluridae, and Nemesiidae) have been identified as non-monophyletic. However, these data were unable to sufficiently resolve the higher-level (intra- and interfamilial) relationships such that the necessary changes in classification could be made with confidence. Here, we present a comprehensive phylogenomic treatment of the spider infraorder Mygalomorphae. We employ 472 loci obtained through anchored hybrid enrichment to reconstruct relationships among all the mygalomorph spider families and estimate the timeframe of their diversification. We sampled nearly all currently recognized families, which has allowed us to assess their status, and as a result, propose a new classification scheme. Our generic-level sampling has also provided an evolutionary framework for revisiting questions regarding silk use in mygalomorph spiders. The first such analysis for the group within a strict phylogenetic framework shows that a sheet web is likely the plesiomorphic condition for mygalomorphs, as well as providing insights to the ancestral foraging behavior for all spiders. Our divergence time estimates, concomitant with detailed biogeographic analysis, suggest that both ancient continental-level vicariance and more recent dispersal events have played an important role in shaping modern day distributional patterns. Based on our results, we relimit the generic composition of the Ctenizidae, Cyrtaucheniidae, Dipluridae, and Nemesiidae. We also elevate five subfamilies to family rank: Anamidae (NEW RANK), Euagridae (NEW RANK), Ischnothelidae (NEW RANK), Pycnothelidae (NEW RANK), and Bemmeridae (NEW RANK). Three families Entypesidae (NEW FAMILY), Microhexuridae (NEW FAMILY), and Stasimopidae (NEW FAMILY), and one subfamily Australothelinae (NEW SUBFAMILY) are newly proposed. Such a major rearrangement in classification, recognizing nine newly established family-level rank taxa, is the largest the group has seen in over three decades. [Biogeography; molecular clocks; phylogenomics; spider web foraging; taxonomy.].

Systematics of the Australian golden trapdoor spiders of the Euoplos variabilis-group (Mygalomorphae : Idiopidae : Euoplini): parapatry and sympatry between closely related species in subtropical Queensland

The Australian golden trapdoor spiders of the tribe Euoplini (family Idiopidae) are among the most abundant and diverse of mygalomorph lineages in subtropical eastern Australia. Throughout this highly populated area, species in the monophyletic Euoplos variabilis-group are largely ubiquitous; however, species delimitation has long proven difficult in the group because species are morphologically very similar and have parapatric or even sympatric distributions. We address these challenges in the variabilis-group, and explore the phylogeny and taxonomy of species using an integrative systematic approach. In doing so, we apply a conservative, pragmatic methodology, naming only species for which adequate data are available (namely sequence data and unequivocally linked male specimens), and explicitly stating and mapping material that could not be linked to a species, to aid future research on the group. We describe five new species from south-eastern Queensland –E. booloumba sp. nov., E. jayneae sp. nov., E. raveni sp. nov., E. regalis sp. nov. and E. schmidti sp. nov.; we redescribe two previously named species – E. similaris (Rainbow & Pulleine, 1918) and E. variabilis (Rainbow & Pulleine, 1918); and we reillustrate the recently described E. grandis Wilson & Rix, 2019. The nominate species, E. variabilis, is shown to have a far smaller distribution than previously thought, and E. similaris is given a modern taxonomic description for the first time. A key to adult male specimens is also provided. This study further reveals a case of sympatry between two species within the variabilis-group; both E. raveni sp. nov. and E. schmidti sp. nov. occur in the Brisbane Valley, south of the Brisbane River – a notable result given that closely related mygalomorph species usually occur allopatrically. This work updates what is currently known of the phylogeny and diversity of one of the dominant mygalomorph lineages of subtropical eastern Australia, resolving a complex and highly endemic fauna. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:A4FB92F6-EFFF-4468-B1D8-000D69923996

The systematics and phylogenetic position of the troglobitic Australian spider genus Troglodiplura (Araneae : Mygalomorphae), with a new classification for Anamidae

Compared with araneomorph spiders, relatively few mygalomorph spiders have evolved an obligate existence in subterranean habitats. The trapdoor spider genus Troglodiplura Main, 1969 and its sole named species T. lowryi Main, 1969 is endemic to caves on the Nullarbor Plain of southern Australia, and is one of the world’s most troglomorphic mygalomorph spiders. However, its systematic position has proved to be difficult to ascertain, largely due to a lack of preserved adults, with all museum specimens represented only by cuticular fragments, degraded specimens or preserved juveniles. The systematic placement of Troglodiplura has changed since it was first described as a member of the Dipluridae, with later attribution to Nemesiidae and then back to Dipluridae. The most recent hypothesis specifically allied Troglodiplura with the Neotropical subfamily Diplurinae, and therefore was assumed to have no close living relatives in Australia. We obtained mitochondrial sequence data from one specimen of Troglodiplura to test these two competing hypotheses, and found that Troglodiplura is a member of the family Anamidae (which was recently separated from the Nemesiidae). We also reassess the morphology of the cuticular fragments of specimens from several different caves, and hypothesise that along with T. lowryi there are four new troglobitic species, here named T. beirutpakbarai Harvey & Rix, T. challeni Harvey & Rix, T. harrisi Harvey & Rix, and T. samankunani Harvey & Rix, each of which is restricted to a single cave system and therefore severely threatened by changing environmental conditions within the caves. The first descriptions and illustrations of the female spermathecae of Troglodiplura are provided. The family Anamidae is further divided into two subfamilies, with the Anaminae Simon containing Aname L. Koch, 1873, Hesperonatalius Castalanelli, Huey, Hillyer & Harvey, 2017, Kwonkan Main, 1983, Swolnpes Main & Framenau, 2009 and Troglodiplura, and the Teylinae Main including Chenistonia Hogg, 1901, Namea Raven, 1984, Proshermacha Simon, 1909, Teyl Main, 1975 and Teyloides Main, 1985. ZooBank Registration: http://zoobank.org/References/2BE2B429-0998-4AFE-9381-B30BDC391E9C

Phylogenetic relationships and biogeographic history of the Australian trapdoor spider genus Conothele (Araneae: Mygalomorphae: Halonoproctidae): diversification into arid habitats in an otherwise tropical radiation

In Australia, climate change and continental drift have given rise to a complex biota comprising mesic specialists, arid-adapted lineages, and taxa that have arrived on the continent from Asia. We explore the phylogenetic diversity and biogeographic history of the Australian trapdoor spider genus Conothele Thorell, 1878 that is widespread in Australia’s monsoonal tropics and arid zone. We sequenced three mtDNA and five nuDNA markers from 224 specimens. We reconstructed the phylogenetic relationships among specimens and estimated the number of operational taxonomic units (OTUs) using species delimitation methods. The timing of divergences was estimated and ancestral area reconstructions were conducted. We recovered 61 OTUs, grouped into four major clades; a single clade represented by an arboreal ecomorph, and three fossorial clades. The Australian Conothele had a crown age of ~19 million years, and ancestral area reconstructions showed a complex history with multiple transitions among the monsoonal tropics, central arid zone, south-west and Pilbara bioregion. Conothele arrived on the continent during periods of biotic exchange with Asia. Since then, Conothele has colonised much of the Australian arid and monsoonal zones, during a period of climatic instability. The Pilbara bioregion harbours high lineage diversity, emphasising the role of climate refugia.

Systematics of the palisade trapdoor spiders (Euoplos) of south-eastern Queensland (Araneae : Mygalomorphae : Idiopidae): four new species distinguished by their burrow entrance architecture

Within the spiny trapdoor spider genus Euoplos Rainbow exists a group of species from south-eastern Queensland that create unusual ‘palisade’ burrow entrances. Despite their intriguing burrows, the group was only recently circumscribed, and all species within it were undescribed. In this study, by undertaking a molecular phylogenetic analysis of two mitochondrial markers and seven nuclear markers, we confirm that the palisade trapdoor spiders, here formally named the ‘turrificus-group’, are monophyletic. We further recognise four species based on morphological, molecular and behavioural characters: E. crenatus, sp. nov., E. goomboorian, sp. nov., E. thynnearum, sp. nov. and E. turrificus, sp. nov. Morphological taxonomic data for each species are presented alongside information on their distribution, habitat preferences and burrow architecture. A key to species within the turrificus-group is also provided. The unusual burrow entrances of these spiders, which project out from the surrounding substrate, are found to exhibit structural autapomorphies, which allow species-level identification. Consequently, we include features of burrow architecture in our key and species diagnoses. This provides a non-intrusive method for distinguishing species in the field. Finally, we conclude that all species within the turrificus-group are likely to represent short-range endemic taxa. http://zoobank.org/urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:F2E042DC-DA14-4751-A48B-A367ABC272D9

Species conservation profiles of a random sample of world spiders II: Gnaphosidae to Nemesiidae

Background

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most widely used information source on the extinction risk of species. One of the uses of the Red List is to evaluate and monitor the state of biodiversity and a possible approach for this purpose is the Red List Index (RLI). For many taxa, mainly hyperdiverse groups, it is not possible within available resources to assess all known species. In such cases, a random sample of species might be selected for assessment and the results derived from it extrapolated for the entire group - the Sampled Red List Index (SRLI). The current contribution is the second in four papers that will constitute the baseline of a future spider SRLI encompassing 200 species distributed across the world.

New information

A sample of 200 species of spiders were randomly selected from the World Spider Catalogue, an updated global database containing all recognised species names for the group. The 200 selected species where divided taxonomically at the family level and the familes were ordered alphabetically. In this publication, we present the conservation profiles of 45 species belonging to the families alphabetically arranged between Gnaphosidae and Nemesiidae, which encompassed Gnaphosidae, Idiopidae, Linyphiidae, Liocranidae, Lycosidae, Micropholcommatidae, Mysmenidae and Nemesiidae.

Conservation systematics of the shield-backed trapdoor spiders of the nigrum-group (Mygalomorphae, Idiopidae, Idiosoma): integrative taxonomy reveals a diverse and threatened fauna from south-western Australia

The aganippine shield-backed trapdoor spiders of the monophyletic nigrum-group of Idiosoma Ausserer s. l. are revised, and 15 new species are described from Western Australia and the Eyre Peninsula of South Australia: I.arenaceum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.corrugatum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.clypeatum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.dandaragan Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.formosum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.gardneri Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.gutharuka Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.incomptum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.intermedium Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.jarrah Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.kopejtkaorum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.kwongan Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.mcclementsorum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., I.mcnamarai Rix & Harvey, sp. n., and I.schoknechtorum Rix & Harvey, sp. n. Two previously described species from south-western Western Australia, I.nigrum Main, 1952 and I.sigillatum (O. P.-Cambridge, 1870), are re-illustrated and re-diagnosed, and complementary molecular data for 14 species and seven genes are analysed with Bayesian methods. Members of the nigrum-group are of long-standing conservation significance, and I.nigrum is the only spider in Australia to be afforded threatened species status under both State and Commonwealth legislation. Two other species, I.formosum Rix & Harvey, sp. n. and I.kopejtkaorum Rix & Harvey, sp. n., are also formally listed as Endangered under Western Australian State legislation. Here we significantly relimit I.nigrum to include only those populations from the central and central-western Wheatbelt bioregion, and further document the known diversity and conservation status of all known species.

Spiny trapdoor spiders (Euoplos) of eastern Australia: Broadly sympatric clades are differentiated by burrow architecture and male morphology

Spiders of the infraorder Mygalomorphae are fast becoming model organisms for the study of biogeography and speciation. However, these spiders can be difficult to study in the absence of fundamental life history information. In particular, their cryptic nature hinders comprehensive sampling, and linking males with conspecific females can be challenging. Recently discovered differences in burrow entrance architecture and male morphology indicated that these challenges may have impeded our understanding of the trapdoor spider genus Euoplos in Australia's eastern mesic zone. We investigated the evolutionary significance of these discoveries using a multi-locus phylogenetic approach. Our results revealed the existence of a second, previously undocumented, lineage of Euoplos in the eastern mesic zone. This new lineage occurs in sympatry with a lineage previously known from the region, and the two are consistently divergent in their burrow entrance architecture and male morphology, revealing the suitability of these characters for use in phylogenetic studies. Divergent burrow entrance architecture and observed differences in microhabitat preferences are suggested to facilitate sympatry and syntopy between the lineages. Finally, by investigating male morphology and plotting it onto the phylogeny, we revealed that the majority of Euoplos species remain undescribed, and that males of an unnamed species from the newly discovered lineage had historically been linked, erroneously, to a described species from the opposite lineage. This paper clarifies the evolutionary relationships underlying life history diversity in the Euoplos of eastern Australia, and provides a foundation for urgently needed taxonomic revision of this genus.

The longest-lived spider: mygalomorphs dig deep, and persevere

We report the longest-lived spider documented to date. A 43-year-old, female Gaius villosus Rainbow, 1914 (Mygalomorphae: Idiopidae) has recently died during a long-term population study. This study was initiated by Barbara York Main at North Bungulla Reserve near Tammin, south-western Australia, in 1974. Annual monitoring of this species of burrowing, sedentary mygalomorph spider yielded not only this record-breaking discovery but also invaluable information for high-priority conservation taxa within a global biodiversity hotspot. We suggest that the life-styles of short-range endemics provide lessons for humanity and sustainable living in old stable landscapes.