Exploring temporal activity of dholes, their prey, and competitors in East Java, Indonesia

Dholes (Cuon alpinus) are endangered large carnivores found in scattered populations in Asia. One of the main threats to dholes is the decreasing prey availability throughout their distribution range. In the present study, we used camera trap data collected over 6 years to investigate the temporal activity patterns of dholes and their putative prey species in Baluran National Park in Java, Indonesia. We also explored the overlap in activity between dholes and the park's other remaining large carnivore the Javan leopard (Panthera pardus melas), as well as humans. Furthermore, we investigated potential differences in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming in pairs or alone. We found a high temporal overlap between dholes and their wild ungulate prey species (ranging from Δ = 0.66-0.90), with the lowest overlap observed between dholes and bantengs (Bos javanicus) (Δ = 0.66), and the highest between dholes and muntjacs (Muntiacus muntjak) (Δ = 0.90). A very low overlap was found between dholes and domestic cattle (Bos indicus) (Δ = 0.27) whereas a moderately high overlap was found between dholes and leopards (Δ = 0.70) and dholes and humans (Δ = 0.62). We found a significant difference in activity patterns between dholes in packs and dholes roaming alone or in pairs (Δ = 0.78, p = .01). Single/pairs of dholes were more active both during the day and at night, whereas packs were predominantly active around sunrise and sunset. The high overlap with humans potentially has a negative effect on dhole activity, particularly for dispersing individuals, and the low overlap with domestic species questions the extent to which dholes are considered to predate on them.

Contrasting effects of human settlement on the interaction among sympatric apex carnivores

In the face of a growing human footprint, understanding interactions among threatened large carnivores is fundamental to effectively mitigating anthropogenic threats and managing species. Using data from a large-scale camera trap survey, we investigated the effects of environmental and anthropogenic variables on the interspecific interaction of a carnivore guild comprising of tiger, leopard and dhole in Bhutan. We demonstrate the complex effects of human settlement density on large carnivore interactions. Specifically, we demonstrate that leopard–dhole co-occupancy probability was higher in areas with higher human settlement density. The opposite was true for tiger–leopard co-occupancy probability, but it was positively affected by large prey (gaur) abundance. These findings suggest that multi-carnivore communities across land-use gradients are spatially structured and mediated also by human presence and/or the availability of natural prey. Our findings show that space-use patterns are driven by a combination of the behavioural mechanism of each species and its interactions with competing species. The duality of the effect of settlement density on species interactions suggests that the benefits of exploiting anthropogenic environments are a trade-off between ecological opportunity (food subsidies or easy prey) and the risk of escalating conflict with humans.

When Human-Wildlife Conflict Turns Deadly: Comparing the Situational Factors That Drive Retaliatory Leopard Killings in South Africa

Simple Summary

To better understand why retaliatory leopard killings caused by human-wildlife conflict happen in rural farming communities in South Africa and how to prevent them, this study interviewed conservationists, officials, and farmers living in a small village in the Western Cape Province. The respondents described four main problems that led to these killings: (1) the government’s response to the problem of human-leopard conflict is slow and unwilling; (2) this response was not effective; (3) there were inadequate resources to correctly respond to these killings; and (4) there was a lack of laws and their application as well as strong distrust between everyone involved, making it even harder to deal with the problem. Local community members had various innovative ideas that can be implemented to better handle the problem of human-leopard conflict in their region, which are highlighted in this article. Coupled with the criminological techniques proposed in this research, the problem of human-leopard conflict can be significantly reduced with local ideas and resources, in both the region and in other parts of the world that suffer from similar problems.

Abstract

Retaliatory killings caused by human-wildlife conflict have a significant impact on the survival of leopards. This study explores the reasons for retaliatory killings of leopards by interviewing community members in a small village in South Africa that experienced high incidences of human–leopard conflict. The semi-structured interviews focused on the reasons why retaliatory leopard killings occurred and how to best mitigate the situational factors that triggered these killings. Respondents cited four main problems that fueled these killings: the government’s response to human–leopard conflict was slow and unwilling; this response involved inefficient methods; there were inadequate resources to respond to these killings; and there was a clear lack of laws or their application. Local stakeholders provided a range of innovative strategies to reduce human-leopard conflict and retaliatory killings. While all parties expressed different reasons why these solutions were or were not effective, their conclusions were often similar. The distrust that existed between the parties prevented them from recognizing or accepting their common ground. Based on existing human–wildlife conflict mitigation techniques and solutions identified by local stakeholders, this article explores how criminological techniques, including situational crime prevention, can help identify and frame effective interventions to reduce the number of illegal leopard killings driven by human-wildlife conflict.

Understanding Human–Canid Conflict and Coexistence: Socioeconomic Correlates Underlying Local Attitude and Support Toward the Endangered Dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan

Understanding human–canid conflict and coexistence must focus on documenting human–canid interactions and identifying the underlying drivers of reciprocal human attitude which enables appropriate strategies to minimize conflict and forge coexistence. The dhole (Cuon alpinus), Asia's most widely distributed wild canid, is highly threatened by human persecution and anthropogenic activities. Despite its “endangered” status, its ecological role as an apex predator, negative interactions with humans, and dhole-specific attitude studies are limited, thus hindering the development of a comprehensive dhole-conservation strategy. Here, we investigate the influence of socioeconomic factors of age, gender, income, residency inside/outside a protected area (PA), and other variables (cultural beliefs, livestock loss, and quantity of livestock loss) on the attitudes of local people and support for dhole conservation in the Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan. We conducted a semi-structured questionnaire survey of 1,444 households located within the PA and non-PA from four representative regions in the country. Using R programming, we ran Pearson's chi-square test of independence to test the overall difference in the attitude and support for dhole conservation, followed by recursive partitioning through a conditional inference regression tree to identify its significant covariates with the highest explanatory power. Majority (79.1%) of respondents (χ2 = 488.6; df = 1; p < 0.001) disliked the dhole over those who liked it. More than half (57.7%) (χ2 = 412.7; df = 2; p < 0.001) opposed dhole conservation over those who either supported or remained neutral. Experience of livestock loss to dholes was the primary ( p < 0.001) factor influencing the negative attitude and opposition to dhole conservation, despite an acknowledgment of the ecological role of the dhole in controlling agricultural crop predators. Our study, which is the first-ever survey in Bhutan, solely focused on investigating human attitudes and perceptions toward the dhole, indicating that livestock loss to dholes transcends all positive attitudes to the species and drives a predominant dislike and opposition to its conservation. To improve the attitude and support toward the dhole and to foster dhole–human coexistence, livestock predation by dholes needs alleviation by improving the existing animal husbandry, in conjunction with promoting conservation awareness on this species.

Conserving an Endangered Canid: Assessing Distribution, Habitat Protection, and Connectivity for the Dhole (Cuon alpinus) in Bhutan

Most canids face population declines and range contractions worldwide. Although the dhole (Cuon alpinus) is widely distributed across 10 countries in South and Southeast Asia, limited studies exist on this species. Despite its globally “Endangered” status and ecological role as an apex predator, assessments on its distribution are limited to a few landscapes and countries. This explains the lack of a dhole-specific species conservation plan in most range countries, including Bhutan where no current population estimate exists. The species has also recovered from a country-wide poisoning campaign in the 1970s and 80s. In this study, we determine the dhole's distribution pattern and assess the protection and connectivity of dhole habitat in Bhutan. We anticipated dholes to be extant within their habitat well-represented in protected areas (PAs) and biological corridors (BCs). We used 721 georeferenced dhole occurrence records and eight environmental variables in MaxEnt software to model potential dhole distribution and habitat suitability. The model output was overlaid on the spatial layers of PAs and BCs to assess habitat protection and connectivity. As anticipated, we found the dhole widely distributed in all districts, PAs, and BCs in Bhutan. Dholes were recorded at the highest elevation range limit of 4,980 m above sea level, which overlapped with the “Vulnerable” snow leopard (Panthera uncia). Our model identified 72% (27,634 km2) of the country as suitable areas for dholes, of which, 31% (11,899 km2) was highly suitable and 41% (15,735 km2) was moderately suitable. Contrary to our expectation, PAs and BCs encompassed only 29% (8,046 km2) and 12% (3,185 km2) of suitable areas for dholes, respectively. A vast majority of the areas we deemed suitable for dholes currently remain unprotected, thus making dholes more vulnerable to human persecution and local extermination. We recommend adjusting PA boundaries to fully encompass suitable dhole habitat, and also advocate improved livestock husbandry to reduce dhole related livestock predation and minimize conflict, thereby ensuring its long-term survival in Bhutan.

Every dog has its prey: Range-wide assessment of links between diet patterns, livestock depredation and human interactions for an endangered carnivore

Livestock depredation is the most ubiquitous type of negative interaction between humans and carnivores. We conducted a range-wide assessment linking diet patterns of the endangered dhole Cuon alpinus, with livestock consumption and human-dhole interactions. We first performed a reanalysis of dhole diet data from all published studies (1973-2013) incorporating a recently-developed non-linear correction factor for quantifying prey biomass consumed. We then determined the relative livestock numbers consumed by dholes over time across its range, compared these with earlier estimates, and investigated the relative importance of wild vs. non-wild prey in dhole diet. Using information from >70 studies, we explored links between livestock consumption by dholes, availability of wild versus non-wild prey, sympatric depredation-prone carnivores, and people's perception of dholes as livestock predators. We found that (a) dhole diet profiles varied regionally, (b) dholes consumed fewer livestock compared to estimates generated using other, widely used methods, (c) livestock consumption by dholes was associated with wild and non-wild prey densities, and number of co-predator species, and (d) people's negative perception of dholes was associated with pack sizes, levels of livestock depredation and number of sympatric carnivore species. Global efforts for dhole conservation should involve different strategies based on region-specific realities that account for ecological context as well as human perceptions, which would require well-designed studies of dhole social and population dynamics, and human-dhole interactions. We also call for more such range-wide assessments of livestock depredation by wild canids, complemented with direct investigations of human-canid interactions.

The impact of leopards (Panthera pardus) on livestock losses and human injuries in a human-use landscape in Maharashtra, India

There are many ways in which large carnivores and humans interact in shared spaces. In this study we provide insights into human-leopard relationships in an entirely modified, human-dominated landscape inhabited by dense populations of humans (266 per km²), their livestock (162 per km²) and relatively high densities of large predators (10 per 100 km²). No human deaths were recorded, and livestock losses to leopards numbered only 0.45 per km²per year (averaged over three years) despite the almost complete dependency of leopards on domestic animals as prey. Predation was not the major cause of livestock mortality as diseases and natural causes caused higher losses (80% of self-reported losses). We also found that ineffective night time livestock protection and the presence of domestic dogs increased the probability of a farmer facing leopard attacks on livestock. Resident farmers faced much lower livestock losses to leopard predation in contrast to the migratory shepherds who reported much higher losses, but rarely availed of the government compensation schemes. We recommend that local wildlife managers continue to shift from reactive measures such as leopard captures after livestock attacks to proactive measures such as focusing on effective livestock protection and informing the affected communities about safety measures to be taken where leopards occur in rural landscapes. The natural causes of livestock deaths due do diseases may be better prevented by involving animal husbandry department for timely vaccinations and treatment.

Assessing the effectiveness of a protected area network: a case study of Bhutan

An assessment of management effectiveness was carried out for all the protected areas in the Kingdom of Bhutan. During 2014–2016 the Royal Government of Bhutan developed a custom-made tool for assessing management effectiveness: the Bhutan Management Effectiveness Tracking Tool Plus (Bhutan METT +). This was implemented in Bhutan's 10 protected areas and one botanical park, and the results were verified through field trips and expert reviews. The assessment indicates that protected areas in Bhutan are well managed and there are generally good relationships with local communities, despite an increase in livestock predation and crop damage. However, effectiveness is limited by a low level of resources (both financial and appropriate technical resources) and by gaps in monitoring and research data, which limits the ability to understand the impact of conservation, react to changing conditions and undertake adaptive management to improve efficiency and effectiveness. Bhutan is in the midst of mobilizing considerable conservation funding. The Government is working in partnership with WWF to create an innovative funding mechanism for the protected area system: the Bhutan for Life initiative. The Bhutan METT + study provides an example of how to develop a baseline against which to measure the effectiveness of protected areas over time and assess the impact of conservation inputs.

Guardian dogs protect sheep by guarding sheep, not by establishing territories and excluding predators

Guardian animals have been a common non-lethal method for reducing predator impacts on livestock for centuries in Europe. But elsewhere, livestock producers sometimes doubt whether such methods work or are compatible with modern livestock husbandry practices in extensive grazing systems. In this study we evaluate the hypothesis that guardian dogs primarily ‘work’ by establishing and defending territories from which canid predators are excluded. Eight maremmas and six free-ranging wild dogs of different sexes were fitted with GPS collars and monitored for 7 months on a large sheep property in north Queensland, Australia. Wild dog incursions into the territories of adjacent wild dogs and maremmas were recorded. Wild dog territories never overlapped and their home ranges infrequently overlapped. In contrast, 713 hourly locations from 120 wild dog incursions into maremma territories were recorded, mostly from three wild dogs. These three wild dogs spent a mean of 2.5–5.9 h inside maremma territories during incursions. At this location, maremmas worked by guarding sheep and prohibiting fine-scale interaction between wild dogs and sheep, not by establishing a territory respected by wild dogs. We conclude that shepherding behaviour and boisterous vocalisations of guardian dogs combined with the flocking behaviour of sheep circumvents attacks on sheep but does not prevent nor discourage wild dogs from foraging in close proximity. Certain husbandry practices and the behaviour of sheep at parturition may incur greater predation risk.