Modulation of the electronic structure and the Ni-Fe distance in heterobimetallic models for the active site in [NiFe]hydrogenase

Hybrids of [FeFe]- and [NiFe]-H2ase Active Site Models

Complexes of the type (diphosphine)Ni(μ-SR)2Fe(CO)3 are investigated with azadithiolate (adt, HN(CH2S-)2) as the dithiolate. The resulting complexes are hybrid models for the active sites of the [NiFe]- and [FeFe]-hydrogenases. The key complex (dppv)Ni(μ-adt)Fe(CO)3 (3) was prepared from the complex Ni[(SCH2)2NCbz](dppv), which contains a Cbz-protected adt ligand (Cbz = C(O)OCH2Ph, dppv = cis-1,2-(Ph2P)2C2H2). This complex combines with Fe2(CO)9 to give (dppv)Ni[(μ-SCH2)2NCbz]Fe(CO)3, which is readily deprotected to give 3. Complex 3 undergoes protonation at both Fe and N to give successively [(dppv)Ni(μ-adt)FeH(CO)3]+ ([H3]+) and [(dppv)Ni(μ-adtH)FeH(CO)3]2+ ([H3H]2+). The redox properties and dynamics of these complexes resemble previously reported analogues with propanedithiolate. Solutions of [H3]+ readily degrade to [(dppv)Ni[(μ-SCH2)2NCH2]Fe(CO)3]+ ([4]+), which features a methylene group linking N and Fe. Complex [4]+ can be made in high yield by reaction of [H3]+ with CH2O, and this conversion was also demonstrated with 13CH2O. Complex [4]+ undergoes hydrogenolysis by photochemical reaction with H2 to give [(dppv)Ni[(μ-SCH2)2NMe]FeH(CO)3]+, the N-methylated analogue of [H3]+. Upon treatment ith Me3O+, [4]+ undergoes quaternization, giving [(dppv)Ni[(μ-SCH2)2N(Me)CH2]Fe(CO)3]2+. In contrast with the lability of [H3]+, the phosphine-substituted derivative [(dppv)Ni(μ-adt)FeH(CO)2(PPh3)]+ did not degrade. Most complexes were characterized by X-ray crystallography.

Mononuclear nickel(II) dithiolate complexes with chelating diphosphines: Insight into protonation and electrochemical proton reduction

Inspired by the metal active sites of [FeFe]- and [NiFe]‑hydrogenases, a series of mononuclear Ni(II) ethanedithiolate complexes [{(Ph₂PCH₂)₂×}Ni(SCH₂CH₂S)] (X = NCH₂C₅H₄N-p (2a), NCH₂C₆H₅ (2b), NCH₂CHMe₂ (2c), and CH₂ (2d)) with chelating diphosphines were readily synthesized through the room-temperature treatments of mononuclear Ni(II) dichlorides [{(Ph₂PCH₂)₂×}NiCl₂] (1a-1d) with ethanedithiol (HSCH₂CH₂SH) in the presence of triethylamine (Et₃N) as acid-binding agent. All the as-prepared complexes 1a-1d and 2a-2d are fully characterized through elemental analysis, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectrum, and by X-ray crystallography for 1b, 2a-2d. To further explore proton-trapping behaviors of this type of mononuclear Ni(II) complexes for catalytic hydrogen (H₂) evolution, the protonation and electrochemical proton reduction of 2a-2c with aminodiphosphines (labeled PCNCP = (Ph₂PCH₂)₂NR) and reference analogue 2d with nitrogen-free diphosphine (dppp = (Ph₂PCH₂)₂CH₂) are studied and compared under trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) as a proton source. Interestingly, the treatments of 2a-2d with excess TFA resulted in the unexpected formation of dinuclear Ni(II)-Ni(II) dication complexes [{(Ph₂PCH₂)₂×}₂Ni₂(μ-SCH₂CH₂S)](CF₃CO₂)₂ (3a-3d) and mononuclear Ni(II) N-protonated complexes [{(Ph₂PCH₂)₂N(H)R}Ni(SCH₂CH₂S)](CF₃CO₂) (4a-4c), which has been well supported by high-resolution electrospray ionization mass spectroscopy (HRESI-MS), NMR (³¹P, ¹H) as well as fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) techniques, and especially by X-ray crystallography for 3d. Additionally, the electrochemical properties of 2a-2d are investigated in the absence and presence of strong acid (TFA) by using cyclic voltammetry (CV), showing that the complete protonation of 2a-2d gave rise to dinuclear Ni₂S₂ species 3a-3d for electrocatalytic proton reduction to H₂.

Biochemical and artificial pathways for the reduction of carbon dioxide, nitrite and the competing proton reduction: effect of 2nd sphere interactions in catalysis

Reduction of oxides and oxoanions of carbon and nitrogen are of great contemporary importance as they are crucial for a sustainable environment.

Identifying a Real Catalyst of [NiFe]-Hydrogenase Mimic for Exceptional H2 Photogeneration

Inspired by the natural [NiFe]-H₂ ase, we designed mimic 1, (dppe)Ni(μ-pdt)(μ-Cl)Ru(CO)₂ Cl to realize effective H₂ evolution under photocatalytic conditions. However, a new species 2 was captured in the course of photo-, electro-, and chemo- one-electron reduction. Experimental studies of in situ IR spectroscopy, EPR, NMR, X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and DFT calculations corroborated a dimeric structure of 2 as a closed-shell, symmetric structure with a Ru^I center. The isolated dimer 2 showed the real catalytic role in photocatalysis with a benchmark turnover frequency (TOF) of 1936 h^-1 for H₂ evolution, while mimic 1 worked as a pre-catalyst and evolved H₂ only after being reduced to 2. The remarkably catalytic activity and unique dimer structure of 2 operated in photocatalysis unveiled a broad research prospect in hydrogenases mimics for advanced H₂ evolution.

Crystal structure of NiFe(CO)5[tris(pyridyl-meth-yl)aza-phosphatrane]: a synthetic mimic of the NiFe hydrogenase active site incorporating a pendant pyridine base

The synthesis and the crystal structure of a NiFe complex containing an aza­phosphatrane ligand is discussed. The NiFe(TPAP)(CO)₅ complex contains a pendant pyridine base in close proximity to the NiFe metal center.

The reaction of Ni(TPAP)(COD) {where TPAP = [(NC₅H₄)CH₂]₃P(NC₂H₄)₃N} with Fe(CO)₅ resulted in the isolation of the title heterobimetallic NiFe(TPAP)(CO)₅ complex di-μ-carbonyl-tricarbon­yl[2,8,9-tris­(pyridin-2-yl­meth­yl)-2,5,8,9-tetra­aza-1-phosphabi­cyclo­[3.3.3]undeca­ne]ironnickel, [FeNi(C₂₄H₃₀N₇P)(CO)₅]. Characterization of the complex by ¹H and ³¹P NMR as well as IR spectroscopy are presented. The structure of NiFe(TPAP)(CO)₅ reveals three terminally bound CO mol­ecules on Fe⁰, two bridging CO mol­ecules between Ni⁰ and Fe⁰, and TPAP coordinated to Ni⁰. The Ni—Fe bond length is 2.4828 (4) Å, similar to that of the reduced form of the active site of NiFe hydrogenase (∼2.5 Å). Additionally, a proximal pendant base from one of the non-coordinating pyridine groups of TPAP is also present. Although involvement of a pendant base has been cited in the mechanism of NiFe hydrogenase, this moiety has yet to be incorporated in a structurally characterized synthetic mimic with key structural motifs (terminally bound CO or CN ligands on Fe). Thus, the title complex NiFe(TPAP)(CO)₅ is an unique synthetic model for NiFe hydrogenase. In the crystal, the complex mol­ecules are linked by C—H⋯O hydrogen bonds, forming undulating layers parallel to (100). Within the layers, there are offset π–π [inter­centroid distance = 3.2739 (5) Å] and C—H⋯π inter­actions present. The layers are linked by further C—H⋯π inter­actions, forming a supra­molecular framework.

Synthetic Designs and Structural Investigations of Biomimetic Ni-Fe Thiolates

Described are the syntheses of several Ni(μ-SR)₂Fe complexes, including hydride derivatives, in a search for improved models for the active site of [NiFe]-hydrogenases. The nickel(II) precursors include (i) nickel with tripodal ligands: Ni(PS₃)^- and Ni(NS₃)^- (PS₃^3- = tris(phenyl-2-thiolato)phosphine, NS₃^3- = tris(benzyl-2-thiolato)amine), (ii) traditional diphosphine-dithiolates, including chiral diphosphine R,R-DIPAMP, (iii) cationic Ni(phosphine-imine/amine) complexes, and (iv) organonickel precursors Ni( o-tolyl)Cl(tmeda) and Ni(C₆F₅)₂. The following new nickel precursor complexes were characterized: PPh₄[Ni(NS₃)] and the dimeric imino/amino-phosphine complexes [NiCl₂(PCH═N^An)]₂ and [NiCl₂(PCH₂NH^An)]₂ (P = Ph₂PC₆H₄-2-). The iron(II) reagents include [CpFe(CO)₂(thf)]BF₄, [Cp*Fe(CO)(MeCN)₂]BF₄, FeI₂(CO)₄, FeCl₂(diphos)(CO)₂, and Fe(pdt)(CO)₂(diphos) (diphos = chelating diphosphines). Reactions of the nickel and iron complexes gave the following new Ni-Fe compounds: Cp*Fe(CO)Ni(NS₃), [Cp(CO)Fe(μ-pdt)Ni(dppbz)]BF₄, [( R,R-DIPAMP)Ni(μ-pdt)(H)Fe(CO)₃]BAr^F₄, [(PCH═N^An)Ni(μ-pdt)(Cl)Fe(dppbz)(CO)]BF₄, [(PCH₂NH^An)Ni(μ-pdt)(Cl)Fe(dppbz)(CO)]BF₄, [(PCH═N^An)Ni(μ-pdt)(H)Fe(dppbz)(CO)]BF₄, [(dppv)(CO)Fe(μ-pdt)]₂Ni, {H[(dppv)(CO)Fe(μ-pdt)]₂Ni]}BF₄, and (C₆F₅)₂Ni(μ-pdt)Fe(CO)₂(dppv) (DIPAMP = (CH₂P(C₆H₄-2-OMe)₂)₂; BAr^F₄^- = [B(C₆H₃-3,5-(CF₃)₂]₄^-)) Within the context of Ni-(SR)₂-Fe complexes, these new complexes feature new microenvironments for the nickel center: tetrahedral Ni, chirality, imine, and amine coligands, and Ni-C bonds. In the case of {H[(dppv)(CO)Fe(μ-pdt)]₂Ni}⁺, four low-energy isomers are separated by ≤3 kcal/mol, one of which features a biomimetic HNi(SR)₄ site, as supported by density functional theory calculations.

Bimetallic nickel-cobalt hydrides in H2 activation and catalytic proton reduction

The synergism of the electronic properties of nickel and cobalt enables bimetallic NiCo complexes to process H2. The nickel-cobalt hydride [(dppe)Ni(pdt)(H)CoCp*]+ ([1H]+ ) arising from protonation of the reduced state 1 was found to be an efficient electrocatalyst for H2 evolution with Cl2CHCOOH, and the oxidized [Ni(ii)Co(iii)]2+ form is capable of activating H2 to produce [1H]+ . The features of stereodynamics, acid-base properties, redox chemistry and reactivity of these bimetallic NiCo complexes in processing H2 are potentially related to the active site of [NiFe]-H2ases.

A new structural model for NiFe hydrogenases: an unsaturated analogue of a classic hydrogenase model leads to more enzyme-like Ni-Fe distance and inter-planar fold

The complex cation in the title compound, (carbonyl-1κC)(1η5-penta-methyl-cyclo-penta-dien-yl)(μ-2,3,9,10-tetra-methyl-1,4,8,11-tetra-thia-undeca-2,9-diene-1,11-diido-1κ2S,S''':2κ4S,S',S'',S''')ironnickel(Fe-Ni) hexa-fluoro-phosphate, [FeNi(C10H15)(C11H18S4)(CO)]PF6 or [Ni(L')FeCp*(CO)]PF6, is composed of the nickel complex fragment [Ni(L')] coordinated as a metalloligand (using S1 and S4) to the [FeCp*(CO)]+ fragment, where (L')2- is [S-C(Me)=C(Me)-S-(CH2)3-S-C(Me)=C(Me)-S]2- and where Cp*- is cyclo-C5(Me)5- (penta-methyl-cyclo-penta-dien-yl). The ratio of hexa-fluoro-phosphate anion per complex cation is 1:1. The structure at 150 K has ortho-rhom-bic (Pbcn) symmetry. The atoms of the complex cation are located on general positions (multiplicity = 8), whereas there are two independent hexa-fluoro-phosphate anions, each located on a twofold axis (Wyckoff position 4c; multiplicity = 4). The structure of the new dimetallic cation [Ni(L')FeCp*(CO)]+ can be described as containing a three-legged piano-stool environment for iron [Cp*Fe(CO)'S2'] and an approximately square-planar 'S4' environment for Ni. The NiS2Fe diamond-shaped substructure is notably folded at the S-S hinge: the angle between the NiS2 plane and the FeS2 plane normals is 64.85 (6)°. Largely because of this fold, the nickel-iron distance is relatively short, at 2.9195 (8) Å. The structural data for the complex cation, which contains a new unsaturated 'S4' ligand (two C=C double bonds), provide an inter-esting comparison with the known NiFe hydrogenase models containing a saturated 'S4'-ligand analogue having the same number of carbon atoms in the ligand backbone, namely with the structures of [Ni(L)FeCp(CO)]+ (as the PF6- salt, CH2Cl2 solvate) and [Ni(L)FeCp*(CO)]+ (as the PF6- salt), where (L)2- is [S-CH2-CH2-S-(CH2)3-S-CH2-CH2-S]2- and Cp- is cyclo-penta-dienyl. The saturated analogues [Ni(L)FeCp(CO)]+ and [Ni(L)FeCp*(CO)]+ have similar Ni-Fe distances: 3.1727 (6), 3.1529 (7) Å (two independent mol-ecules in the unit cell) and 3.111 (5) Å, respectively, for the two complexes, whereas [Ni(L')FeCp*(CO)]+ described here stands out with a much shorter Ni-Fe distance [2.9196 (8) Å]. Also, [Ni(L)FeCp(CO)]+ and [Ni(L)FeCp*(CO)]+ show inter-planar fold angles that are similar between the two: 39.56 (5), 41.99 (5) (independent mol-ecules in the unit cell) and 47.22 (9) °, respectively, whereas [Ni(L')FeCp*(CO)]+ possesses a much more pronounced fold [64.85 (6)°]. Given that larger fold angles and shorter Ni-Fe distances are considered to be structurally closer to the enzyme, unsaturation in an 'S4'-ligand of the type (S-C2-S-C3-S-C2-S)2- seems to increase structural resemblance to the enzyme for structural models of the type [Ni('S4')FeCp R (CO)]+ (Cp R = Cp or Cp*).

Heterobimetallic [NiFe] Complexes Containing Mixed CO/CN- Ligands: Analogs of the Active Site of the [NiFe] Hydrogenases

The development of synthetic analogs of the active sites of [NiFe] hydrogenases remains challenging, and, in spite of the number of complexes featuring a [NiFe] center, those featuring CO and CN^- ligands at the Fe center are under-represented. We report herein the synthesis of three bimetallic [NiFe] complexes [Ni( N₂ S₂)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂], [Ni( S₄)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂], and [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂] that each contain a Ni center that bridges through two thiolato S donors to a {Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂} unit. X-ray crystallographic studies on [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂], supported by DFT calculations, are consistent with a solid-state structure containing distinct molecules in the singlet ( S = 0) and triplet ( S = 1) states. Each cluster exhibits irreversible reduction processes between -1.45 and -1.67 V vs Fc⁺/Fc and [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂] possesses a reversible oxidation process at 0.17 V vs Fc⁺/Fc. Spectroelectrochemical infrared (IR) and electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) studies, supported by density functional theory (DFT) calculations, are consistent with a Ni^IIIFe^II formulation for [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂]⁺. The singly occupied molecular orbital (SOMO) in [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂]⁺ is based on Ni 3d_z² and 3p S with the S contributions deriving principally from the apical S-donor. The nature of the SOMO corresponds to that proposed for the Ni-C state of the [NiFe] hydrogenases for which a Ni^IIIFe^II formulation has also been proposed. A comparison of the experimental structures, and the electrochemical and spectroscopic properties of [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂] and its [Ni( N₂ S₃)] precursor, together with calculations on the oxidized [Ni( N₂ S₃)Fe(CO)₂(CN)₂]⁺ and [Ni( N₂ S₃)]⁺ forms suggests that the binding of the {Fe(CO)(CN)₂} unit to the {Ni(CysS)₄} center at the active site of the [NiFe] hydrogenases suppresses thiolate-based oxidative chemistry involving the bridging thiolate S donors. This is in addition to the role of the Fe center in modulating the redox potential and geometry and supporting a bridging hydride species between the Ni and Fe centers in the Ni-C state.

Complexes of MN2S2·Fe(η5-C5R5)(CO) as platform for exploring cooperative heterobimetallic effects in HER electrocatalysis

The control of aggregation at sulfur by metallodithiolates (MN₂S₂) has made them prime candidates as building blocks for the synthesis of biomimetics of various bimetallic enzyme active sites, with reactivity consequences implicating redox control by both metal centers. Recent studies of MN₂S₂ (M = Ni²⁺, Fe(NO)²⁺) bound to [(η⁵-C₅H₅)Fe(CO)]⁺ as electrocatalysts for proton reduction, the hydrogen evolution reaction, demonstrated reduction-induced hemi-lability of the bridging cis-dithiolates as a key step in the electrochemical proton reduction process (Ding, et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2016, 138, 12920-12927). The MN₂S₂·Fe(η⁵-C₅R₅)(CO) platform offers numerous possibilities for tuning the electronic character of the M(μ-S₂)Fe core. As well as modifying M within the metallodithiolate ligand, replacing H by CH₃ at the η⁵-C₅R₅ moiety increases the electron density at the Fe center, which might facilitate the reductive Fe-S bond cleavage. Although release of a free thiolate in these hemi-labile ligands creates a needed internal pendant base, this benefit might be countered by the increase in over-potential for addition of the first electron. Herein we report the preparation and characterization of four bimetallic aggregates with the (η⁵-C₅R₅)Fe(CO) (R = H, CH₃; Fe' or Fe*', respectively) or the dicarbonyl (η⁵-C₅R₅)Fe(CO)₂ scaffold (R = H, CH₃; Fe'' or Fe*'', respectively) bound to redox active MN₂S₂ ligands (M = Ni²⁺, Co(NO)²⁺; N₂S₂ = bismercaptoethane diazacycloheptane) Co-Fe*', Ni-Fe*', Co-Fe' and Co-Fe*'' complexes. The bidentate complexes were found to be electrocatalysts for proton reduction, although at high over-potential, especially for the derivatives of the electron-rich (η⁵-C₅(CH₃)₅)Fe(CO)⁺. The turnover (TON) and turnover frequencies (TOF) were determined and found to be comparable to the previously reported MN₂S₂·Fe(η⁵-C₅H₅)(CO)⁺ analogues.

A matrix of heterobimetallic complexes for interrogation of hydrogen evolution reaction electrocatalysts

Experimental and computational studies address key questions in a structure-function analysis of bioinspired electrocatalysts for the HER. Combinations of NiN2S2 or [(NO)Fe]N2S2 as donors to (η5-C5H5)Fe(CO)+ or [Fe(NO)2]+/0 generate a series of four bimetallics, gradually "softened" by increasing nitrosylation, from 0 to 3, by the non-innocent NO ligands. The nitrosylated NiFe complexes are isolated and structurally characterized in two redox levels, demonstrating required features of electrocatalysis. Computational modeling of experimental structures and likely transient intermediates that connect the electrochemical events find roles for electron delocalization by NO, as well as Fe-S bond dissociation that produce a terminal thiolate as pendant base well positioned to facilitate proton uptake and transfer. Dihydrogen formation is via proton/hydride coupling by internal S-H+···-H-Fe units of the "harder" bimetallic arrangements with more localized electron density, while softer units convert H-···H-via reductive elimination from two Fe-H deriving from the highly delocalized, doubly reduced [Fe2(NO)3]- derivative. Computational studies also account for the inactivity of a Ni2Fe complex resulting from entanglement of added H+ in a pinched -S δ-···H+··· δ-S- arrangement.

Light-Driven Hydrogen Evolution by Nickel-Substituted Rubredoxin

An enzymatic system for light-driven hydrogen generation has been developed through covalent attachment of a ruthenium chromophore to nickel-substituted rubredoxin (NiRd). The photoinduced activity of the hybrid enzyme is significantly greater than that of a two-component system and is strongly dependent on the position of the ruthenium phototrigger relative to the active site, indicating a role for intramolecular electron transfer in catalysis. Steady-state and time-resolved emission spectra reveal a pathway for rapid, direct quenching of the ruthenium excited state by nickel, but low overall turnover numbers suggest initial electron transfer is not the rate-limiting step. This approach is ideally suited for detailed mechanistic investigations of catalysis by NiRd and other molecular systems, with implications for generation of solar fuels.

Quantum chemical approaches to [NiFe] hydrogenase

The mechanism by which [NiFe] hydrogenase catalyses the oxidation of molecular hydrogen is a significant yet challenging topic in bioinorganic chemistry. With far-reaching applications in renewable energy and carbon mitigation, significant effort has been invested in the study of these complexes. In particular, computational approaches offer a unique perspective on how this enzyme functions at an electronic and atomistic level. In this article, we discuss state-of-the art quantum chemical methods and how they have helped deepen our comprehension of [NiFe] hydrogenase. We outline the key strategies that can be used to compute the (i) geometry, (ii) electronic structure, (iii) thermodynamics and (iv) kinetic properties associated with the enzymatic activity of [NiFe] hydrogenase and other bioinorganic complexes.

Synthetic Models for Nickel-Iron Hydrogenase Featuring Redox-Active Ligands

The nickel-iron hydrogenase enzymes efficiently and reversibly interconvert protons, electrons, and dihydrogen. These redox proteins feature iron-sulfur clusters that relay electrons to and from their active sites. Reported here are synthetic models for nickel-iron hydrogenase featuring redox-active auxiliaries that mimic the iron-sulfur cofactors. The complexes prepared are NiII(μ-H)FeIIFeII species of formula [(diphosphine)Ni(dithiolate)(μ-H)Fe(CO)2(ferrocenylphosphine)]+ or NiIIFeIFeII complexes [(diphosphine)Ni(dithiolate)Fe(CO)2(ferrocenylphosphine)]+ (diphosphine = Ph2P(CH2)2PPh2 or Cy2P(CH2)2PCy2; dithiolate = -S(CH2)3S-; ferrocenylphosphine = diphenylphosphinoferrocene, diphenylphosphinomethyl(nonamethylferrocene) or 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene). The hydride species is a catalyst for hydrogen evolution, while the latter hydride-free complexes can exist in four redox states - a feature made possible by the incorporation of the ferrocenyl groups. Mixed-valent complexes of 1,1'-bis(diphenylphosphino)ferrocene have one of the phosphine groups unbound, with these species representing advanced structural models with both a redox-active moiety (the ferrocene group) and a potential proton relay (the free phosphine) proximal to a nickel-iron dithiolate.

Dithiolato- and halogenido-bridged nickel–iron complexes related to the active site of [NiFe]-H2ases: preparation, structures, and electrocatalytic H2 production

A new series of [NiFe]-H₂ase mimics (5a,b–7a,b) has been prepared and structurally characterized; particularly, they have been found to be pre-catalysts for H₂ production from Cl₂CHCO₂H under CV conditions.

Dithiolato-bridged nickel–iron complexes as models for the active site of [NiFe]-hydrogenases

While the first NiFe-based μ-hydroxo model [3]⁺ can be prepared by reaction of a dicarbonyl model [1]²⁺ with Me₃NO·2H₂O, the functional modeling of H₂ activation catalyzed by the Ni-SIa state gives the t-hydride model [2]⁺ in high yield.

Electrocatalytic proton reduction by a model for [NiFeSe] hydrogenases

Electrocatalytic proton reduction was studied using [NiFe] complexes as models of [NiFeSe] hydrogenases.

Comparisons of MN2S2vs. bipyridine as redox-active ligands to manganese and rhenium in (L–L)M′(CO)3Cl complexes

Electronic communication was established for a heterobimetallic complex which upon reduction at one metal center modulates ligand loss and subsequent electron uptake at the second metal.

Complexes of Ni(i): a “rare” oxidation state of growing importance

The synthesis and diverse structures, reactivity (small molecule activation and catalysis) and magnetic properties of Ni(i) complexes are summarized.

Synthetic [NiFe] models with a fluxional CO ligand

A [NiFe] complex [(dppe)Ni(pdt)FeCp*(CO)]BF₄ was characterized as two isomers, and their interconversions were established by thermal process and electrochemistry.

Nickel–ruthenium-based complexes as biomimetic models of [NiFe] and [NiFeSe] hydrogenases for dihydrogen evolution

Electrocatalytic proton reduction was studied using nickel–ruthenium complexes that were developed as models for [NiFe] and [NiFeSe] hydrogenases.

Heteronuclear assembly of Ni–Cu dithiolato complexes: synthesis, structures, and reactivity studies

A mild route was discovered to synthesize heterometallic [Ni^IICu^I] complexes featuring square-planar Ni(ii) and distorted tetrahedral Cu(i).

Hydrogenase Enzymes and Their Synthetic Models: The Role of Metal Hydrides

Hydrogenase enzymes efficiently process H2 and protons at organometallic FeFe, NiFe, or Fe active sites. Synthetic modeling of the many H2ase states has provided insight into H2ase structure and mechanism, as well as afforded catalysts for the H2 energy vector. Particularly important are hydride-bearing states, with synthetic hydride analogues now known for each hydrogenase class. These hydrides are typically prepared by protonation of low-valent cores. Examples of FeFe and NiFe hydrides derived from H2 have also been prepared. Such chemistry is more developed than mimicry of the redox-inactive monoFe enzyme, although functional models of the latter are now emerging. Advances in physical and theoretical characterization of H2ase enzymes and synthetic models have proven key to the study of hydrides in particular, and will guide modeling efforts toward more robust and active species optimized for practical applications.

Nickel-centred proton reduction catalysis in a model of [NiFe] hydrogenase

Hydrogen production through water splitting is one of the most promising solutions for the storage of renewable energy. [NiFe] hydrogenases are organometallic enzymes containing nickel and iron centres that catalyse hydrogen evolution with performances that rival those of platinum. These enzymes provide inspiration for the design of new molecular catalysts that do not require precious metals. However, all heterodinuclear NiFe models reported so far do not reproduce the Ni-centred reactivity found at the active site of [NiFe] hydrogenases. Here, we report a structural and functional NiFe mimic that displays reactivity at the Ni site. This is shown by the detection of two catalytic intermediates that reproduce structural and electronic features of the Ni-L and Ni-R states of the enzyme during catalytic turnover. Under electrocatalytic conditions, this mimic displays high rates for H₂ evolution (second-order rate constant of 2.5 × 10⁴ M^-1 s^-1; turnover frequency of 250 s^-1 at 10 mM H⁺ concentration) from mildly acidic solutions.

Mechanism of H2 Production by Models for the [NiFe]-Hydrogenases: Role of Reduced Hydrides

The intermediacy of a reduced nickel-iron hydride in hydrogen evolution catalyzed by Ni-Fe complexes was verified experimentally and computationally. In addition to catalyzing hydrogen evolution, the highly basic and bulky (dppv)Ni(μ-pdt)Fe(CO)(dppv) ([1](0); dppv = cis-C2H2(PPh2)2) and its hydride derivatives have yielded to detailed characterization in terms of spectroscopy, bonding, and reactivity. The protonation of [1](0) initially produces unsym-[H1](+), which converts by a first-order pathway to sym-[H1](+). These species have C1 (unsym) and Cs (sym) symmetries, respectively, depending on the stereochemistry of the octahedral Fe site. Both experimental and computational studies show that [H1](+) protonates at sulfur. The S = 1/2 hydride [H1](0) was generated by reduction of [H1](+) with Cp*2Co. Density functional theory (DFT) calculations indicate that [H1](0) is best described as a Ni(I)-Fe(II) derivative with significant spin density on Ni and some delocalization on S and Fe. EPR spectroscopy reveals both kinetic and thermodynamic isomers of [H1](0). Whereas [H1](+) does not evolve H2 upon protonation, treatment of [H1](0) with acids gives H2. The redox state of the "remote" metal (Ni) modulates the hydridic character of the Fe(II)-H center. As supported by DFT calculations, H2 evolution proceeds either directly from [H1](0) and external acid or from protonation of the Fe-H bond in [H1](0) to give a labile dihydrogen complex. Stoichiometric tests indicate that protonation-induced hydrogen evolution from [H1](0) initially produces [1](+), which is reduced by [H1](0). Our results reconcile the required reductive activation of a metal hydride and the resistance of metal hydrides toward reduction. This dichotomy is resolved by reduction of the remote (non-hydride) metal of the bimetallic unit.

Models of the Ni-L and Ni-SIa States of the [NiFe]-Hydrogenase Active Site

A new class of synthetic models for the active site of [NiFe]-hydrogenases are described. The Ni(I/II)(SCys)2 and Fe(II)(CN)2CO sites are represented with (RC5H4)Ni(I/II) and Fe(II)(diphos)(CO) modules, where diphos = 1,2-C2H4(PPh2)2(dppe) or cis-1,2-C2H2(PPh2)2(dppv). The two bridging thiolate ligands are represented by CH2(CH2S)2(2-) (pdt(2-)), Me2C(CH2S)2(2-) (Me2pdt(2-)), and (C6H5S)2(2-). The reaction of Fe(pdt)(CO)2(dppe) and [(C5H5)3Ni2]BF4 affords [(C5H5)Ni(pdt)Fe(dppe)(CO)]BF4 ([1a]BF4). Monocarbonyl [1a]BF4 features an S = 0 Ni(II)Fe(II) center with five-coordinated iron, as proposed for the Ni-SIa state of the enzyme. One-electron reduction of [1a](+) affords the S = 1/2 derivative [1a](0), which, according to density functional theory (DFT) calculations and electron paramagnetic resonance and Mössbauer spectroscopies, is best described as a Ni(I)Fe(II) compound. The Ni(I)Fe(II) assignment matches that for the Ni-L state in [NiFe]-hydrogenase, unlike recently reported Ni(II)Fe(I)-based models. Compound [1a](0) reacts with strong acids to liberate 0.5 equiv of H2 and regenerate [1a](+), indicating that H2 evolution is catalyzed by [1a](0). DFT calculations were used to investigate the pathway for H2 evolution and revealed that the mechanism can proceed through two isomers of [1a](0) that differ in the stereochemistry of the Fe(dppe)CO center. Calculations suggest that protonation of [1a](0) (both isomers) affords Ni(III)-H-Fe(II) intermediates, which represent mimics of the Ni-C state of the enzyme.

In search of metal hydrides: an X-ray absorption and emission study of [NiFe] hydrogenase model complexes

Insight into the factors that favor metal–hydride interactions in NiFe-hydrogenase models is obtained through X-ray spectroscopic and quantum chemical studies.