1
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Mancuso V, Popescu MN, Uspal WE. Chemotactic behavior for a self-phoretic Janus particle near a patch source of fuel. SOFT MATTER 2024. [PMID: 39400209 DOI: 10.1039/d4sm00733f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/15/2024]
Abstract
Many biological microswimmers are capable of chemotaxis, i.e., they can sense an ambient chemical gradient and adjust their mechanism of motility to move towards or away from the source of the gradient. Synthetic active colloids endowed with chemotactic behavior hold considerable promise for targeted drug delivery and the realization of programmable and reconfigurable materials. Here, we study the chemotactic behavior of a Janus particle, which converts "fuel" molecules, released at an axisymmetric chemical patch located on a planar wall, into "product" molecules at its catalytic cap and moves by self-phoresis induced by the product. The chemotactic behavior is characterized as a function of the interplay between the rates of release (at the patch) and the consumption (at the particle) of fuel, as well as of details of the phoretic response of the particle (i.e., its phoretic mobility). Among other results, we find that, under certain conditions, the particle is attracted to a stable "hovering state" in which it aligns its axis normal to the wall and rests (positions itself) at an activity-dependent distance above the center of the patch.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viviana Mancuso
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole St., Holmes Hall 302, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
- International Institute for Sustainability with Knotted Chiral Meta Matter (WPI-SKCM2), Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
| | - Mihail N Popescu
- Department of Atomic, Molecular, and Nuclear Physics, University of Seville, 41080 Seville, Spain.
| | - William E Uspal
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa, 2540 Dole St., Holmes Hall 302, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA.
- International Institute for Sustainability with Knotted Chiral Meta Matter (WPI-SKCM2), Hiroshima University, 1-3-1 Kagamiyama, Higashi-Hiroshima, Hiroshima 739-8526, Japan
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2
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Alonso-Matilla R, Provenzano PP, Odde DJ. Biophysical modeling identifies an optimal hybrid amoeboid-mesenchymal phenotype for maximal T cell migration speeds. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2023.10.29.564655. [PMID: 39026744 PMCID: PMC11257493 DOI: 10.1101/2023.10.29.564655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/20/2024]
Abstract
Despite recent experimental progress in characterizing cell migration mechanics, our understanding of the mechanisms governing rapid cell movement remains limited. To effectively limit tumor growth, antitumoral T cells need to rapidly migrate to find and kill cancer cells. To investigate the upper limits of cell speed, we developed a new hybrid stochastic-mean field model of bleb-based cell motility. We first examined the potential for adhesion-free bleb-based migration and show that cells migrate inefficiently in the absence of adhesion-based forces, i.e., cell swimming. While no cortical contractility oscillations are needed for cells to swim in viscoelastic media, high-to-low cortical contractility oscillations are necessary for cell swimming in viscous media. This involves a high cortical contractility phase with multiple bleb nucleation events, followed by an intracellular pressure buildup recovery phase at low cortical tensions, resulting in modest net cell motion. However, our model suggests that cells can employ a hybrid bleb- and adhesion-based migration mechanism for rapid cell motility and identifies conditions for optimality. The model provides a momentum-conserving mechanism underlying rapid single-cell migration and identifies factors as design criteria for engineering T cell therapies to improve movement in mechanically complex environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roberto Alonso-Matilla
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Center for Multiparametric Imaging of Tumor Immune Microenvironments, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Paolo P. Provenzano
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Center for Multiparametric Imaging of Tumor Immune Microenvironments, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, USA
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, University of Minnesota, USA
- Stem Cell Institute, University of Minnesota, USA
| | - David J. Odde
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Physical Sciences in Oncology Center, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- University of Minnesota Center for Multiparametric Imaging of Tumor Immune Microenvironments, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Masonic Cancer Center, University of Minnesota, USA
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3
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Soneji P, Challita EJ, Bhamla S. Trackoscope: A low-cost, open, autonomous tracking microscope for long-term observations of microscale organisms. PLoS One 2024; 19:e0306700. [PMID: 38990841 PMCID: PMC11239018 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0306700] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Accepted: 06/21/2024] [Indexed: 07/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Cells and microorganisms are motile, yet the stationary nature of conventional microscopes impedes comprehensive, long-term behavioral and biomechanical analysis. The limitations are twofold: a narrow focus permits high-resolution imaging but sacrifices the broader context of organism behavior, while a wider focus compromises microscopic detail. This trade-off is especially problematic when investigating rapidly motile ciliates, which often have to be confined to small volumes between coverslips affecting their natural behavior. To address this challenge, we introduce Trackoscope, a 2-axis autonomous tracking microscope designed to follow swimming organisms ranging from 10μm to 2mm across a 325cm2 area (equivalent to an A5 sheet) for extended durations-ranging from hours to days-at high resolution. Utilizing Trackoscope, we captured a diverse array of behaviors, from the air-water swimming locomotion of Amoeba to bacterial hunting dynamics in Actinosphaerium, walking gait in Tardigrada, and binary fission in motile Blepharisma. Trackoscope is a cost-effective solution well-suited for diverse settings, from high school labs to resource-constrained research environments. Its capability to capture diverse behaviors in larger, more realistic ecosystems extends our understanding of the physics of living systems. The low-cost, open architecture democratizes scientific discovery, offering a dynamic window into the lives of previously inaccessible small aquatic organisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Priya Soneji
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Elio J Challita
- George W. Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
| | - Saad Bhamla
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, United States of America
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4
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Yan Q, Gomis Perez C, Karatekin E. Cell Membrane Tension Gradients, Membrane Flows, and Cellular Processes. Physiology (Bethesda) 2024; 39:0. [PMID: 38501962 PMCID: PMC11368524 DOI: 10.1152/physiol.00007.2024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2024] [Revised: 03/18/2024] [Accepted: 03/18/2024] [Indexed: 03/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Cell membrane tension affects and is affected by many fundamental cellular processes, yet it is poorly understood. Recent experiments show that membrane tension can propagate at vastly different speeds in different cell types, reflecting physiological adaptations. Here we briefly review the current knowledge about membrane tension gradients, membrane flows, and their physiological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qi Yan
- Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut, United States
| | - Carolina Gomis Perez
- Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut, United States
| | - Erdem Karatekin
- Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Nanobiology Institute, Yale University, West Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Wu Tsai Institute, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, United States
- Saints-Pères Paris Institute for the Neurosciences (SPPIN), Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), Paris, France
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5
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Farutin A, Rizvi SM, Hu WF, Lin TS, Rafai S, Misbah C. Motility and swimming: universal description and generic trajectories. THE EUROPEAN PHYSICAL JOURNAL. E, SOFT MATTER 2023; 46:135. [PMID: 38146033 DOI: 10.1140/epje/s10189-023-00395-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2023] [Accepted: 12/11/2023] [Indexed: 12/27/2023]
Abstract
Autonomous locomotion is a ubiquitous phenomenon in biology and in physics of active systems at microscopic scale. This includes prokaryotic, eukaryotic cells (crawling and swimming) and artificial swimmers. An outstanding feature is the ability of these entities to follow complex trajectories, ranging from straight, curved (circular, helical...), to random-like ones. The non-straight nature of these trajectories is often explained as a consequence of the asymmetry of the particle or the medium in which it moves, or due to the presence of bounding walls, etc... Here, we show that for a particle driven by a concentration field of an active species, straight, circular and helical trajectories emerge naturally in the absence of asymmetry of the particle or that of suspending medium. Our proof is based on general considerations, without referring to an explicit form of a model. We show that these three trajectories correspond to self-congruent solutions. Self-congruency means that the states of the system at different moments of time can be made identical by an appropriate combination of rotation and translation of the coordinate space. We show that these solutions are exhibited by spherically symmetric particles as a result of a series of pitchfork bifurcations, leading to spontaneous symmetry breaking in the concentration field driving the particle motility. Self-congruent dynamics in one and two dimensions are analyzed as well. Finally, we present a simple explicit nonlinear exactly solvable model of fully isotropic phoretic particle that shows the transitions from a non-motile state to straight motion to circular motion to helical motion as a series of spontaneous symmetry-breaking bifurcations. Whether a system exhibits or not a given trajectory only depends on the numerical values of parameters entering the model, while asymmetry of swimmer shape, or anisotropy of the suspending medium, or influence of bounding walls are not necessary.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Suhail M Rizvi
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000, Grenoble, France
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad, Sangareddy, Telangana, 502285, India
| | - Wei-Fan Hu
- Department of Mathematics, National Central University, 300 Zhongda Road, Taoyuan, 320, Taiwan
| | - Te-Sheng Lin
- Department of Applied Mathematics, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, 1001 Ta Hsueh Road, Hsinchu, 300, Taiwan
| | - Salima Rafai
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000, Grenoble, France
| | - Chaouqi Misbah
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000, Grenoble, France.
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6
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Garcia-Seyda N, Song S, Seveau de Noray V, David-Broglio L, Matti C, Artinger M, Dupuy F, Biarnes-Pelicot M, Valignat MP, Legler DF, Bajénoff M, Theodoly O. Naive T lymphocytes chemotax long distance to CCL21 but not to a source of bioactive S1P. iScience 2023; 26:107695. [PMID: 37822497 PMCID: PMC10562802 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2023.107695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2022] [Revised: 06/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/16/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Naive T lymphocytes traffic through the organism in search for antigen, alternating between blood and secondary lymphoid organs. Lymphocyte homing to lymph nodes relies on CCL21 chemokine sensing by CCR7 receptors, while exit into efferent lymphatics relies on sphingolipid S1P sensing by S1PR1 receptors. While both molecules are claimed chemotactic, a quantitative analysis of naive T lymphocyte migration along defined gradients is missing. Here, we used a reductionist approach to study the real-time single-cell response of naive T lymphocytes to CCL21 and serum rich in bioactive S1P. Using microfluidic and micropatterning ad hoc tools, we show that CCL21 triggers stable polarization and long-range chemotaxis of cells, whereas S1P-rich serum triggers a transient polarization only and no significant displacement, potentially representing a brief transmigration step through exit portals. Our in vitro data thus suggest that naive T lymphocyte chemotax long distances to CCL21 but not toward a source of bioactive S1P.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Garcia-Seyda
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, CIML, Marseille, France
| | - Solene Song
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, CIML, Marseille, France
| | | | - Luc David-Broglio
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Christoph Matti
- Biotechnology Institute Thurgau (BITg) at the University of Konstanz, Unterseestrasse 47, 8280 Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
| | - Marc Artinger
- Biotechnology Institute Thurgau (BITg) at the University of Konstanz, Unterseestrasse 47, 8280 Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
- Graduate School for Cellular and Biomedical Sciences, University of Bern, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Florian Dupuy
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Martine Biarnes-Pelicot
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Valignat
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Daniel F. Legler
- Biotechnology Institute Thurgau (BITg) at the University of Konstanz, Unterseestrasse 47, 8280 Kreuzlingen, Switzerland
- Faculty of Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstraße 10, 78464 Konstanz, Germany
- Theodor Kocher Institute, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 1, 3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Marc Bajénoff
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, CIML, Marseille, France
| | - Olivier Theodoly
- Aix Marseille University, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
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7
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Xing F, Dong H, Yang J, Fan C, Hou M, Zhang P, Hu F, Zhou J, Chen L, Pan L, Xu J. Mesenchymal Migration on Adhesive-Nonadhesive Alternate Surfaces in Macrophages. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2301337. [PMID: 37211690 PMCID: PMC10427406 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202301337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Mesenchymal migration usually happens on adhesive substrates, while cells adopt amoeboid migration on low/nonadhesive surfaces. Protein-repelling reagents, e.g., poly(ethylene) glycol (PEG), are routinely employed to resist cell adhering and migrating. Contrary to these perceptions, this work discovers a unique locomotion of macrophages on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates in vitro that they can overcome nonadhesive PEG gaps to reach adhesive regions in the mesenchymal mode. Adhering to extracellular matrix regions is a prerequisite for macrophages to perform further locomotion on the PEG regions. Podosomes are found highly enriched on the PEG region in macrophages and support their migration across the nonadhesive regions. Increasing podosome density through myosin IIA inhibition facilitates cell motility on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates. Moreover, a developed cellular Potts model reproduces this mesenchymal migration. These findings together uncover a new migratory behavior on adhesive-nonadhesive alternate substrates in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fulin Xing
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Hao Dong
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Jianyu Yang
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Chunhui Fan
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Mengdi Hou
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Fen Hu
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Frontiers Science Center for Cell Responses, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
| | - Liangyi Chen
- State Key Laboratory of Membrane Biology, Institute of Molecular Medicine, National Biomedical Imaging Center, Center for Life Sciences, School of Future Technology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Leiting Pan
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
- State Key Laboratory of Medicinal Chemical Biology, Frontiers Science Center for Cell Responses, College of Life Sciences, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute of Nankai University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518083, China
| | - Jingjun Xu
- The Key Laboratory of Weak-Light Nonlinear Photonics of Education Ministry, School of Physics and TEDA Institute of Applied Physics, Nankai University, Tianjin, 300071, China
- Shenzhen Research Institute of Nankai University, Shenzhen, Guangdong, 518083, China
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8
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Zhang W, Deng Y, Zhao J, Zhang T, Zhang X, Song W, Wang L, Li T. Amoeba-Inspired Magnetic Venom Microrobots. SMALL (WEINHEIM AN DER BERGSTRASSE, GERMANY) 2023; 19:e2207360. [PMID: 36869412 DOI: 10.1002/smll.202207360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2022] [Revised: 02/05/2023] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Nature provides a successful evolutionary direction for single-celled organisms to solve complex problems and complete survival tasks - pseudopodium. Amoeba, a unicellular protozoan, can produce temporary pseudopods in any direction by controlling the directional flow of protoplasm to perform important life activities such as environmental sensing, motility, predation, and excretion. However, creating robotic systems with pseudopodia to emulate environmental adaptability and tasking capabilities of natural amoeba or amoeboid cells remains challenging. Here, this work presents a strategy that uses alternating magnetic fields to reconfigure magnetic droplet into Amoeba-like microrobot, and the mechanisms of pseudopodia generation and locomotion are analyzed. By simply adjusting the field direction, microrobots switch in monopodia, bipodia, and locomotion modes, performing all pseudopod operations such as active contraction, extension, bending, and amoeboid movement. The pseudopodia endow droplet robots with excellent maneuverability to adapt to environmental variations, including spanning 3D terrains and swimming in bulk liquids. Inspired by the "Venom," the phagocytosis and parasitic behaviors have also been investigated. Parasitic droplets inherit all the capabilities of amoeboid robot, expanding their applicable scenarios such as reagent analysis, microchemical reactions, calculi removal, and drug-mediated thrombolysis. This microrobot may provide fundamental understanding of single-celled livings, and potential applications in biotechnology and biomedicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Weiwei Zhang
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Yuguo Deng
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Jinhao Zhao
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Tao Zhang
- School of Mechanical and Power Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
| | - Xiang Zhang
- School of Mechanics and Safety Engineering, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
- National Center for International Joint Research of Micro-nano Molding Technology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, Henan, 450001, P. R. China
- State Key Laboratory of Fluid Power and Mechatronic Systems, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, 310027, P. R. China
| | - Wenping Song
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150001, P. R. China
- Research center for intelligent equipment, Chongqing Research Institute of Harbin Institute of Technology, Chongqing, 400722, P. R. China
| | - Lin Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150001, P. R. China
- Research center for intelligent equipment, Chongqing Research Institute of Harbin Institute of Technology, Chongqing, 400722, P. R. China
| | - Tianlong Li
- State Key Laboratory of Robotics and System, Harbin Institute of Technology, Harbin, Heilongjiang, 150001, P. R. China
- Research center for intelligent equipment, Chongqing Research Institute of Harbin Institute of Technology, Chongqing, 400722, P. R. China
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9
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George S, Martin JAJ, Graziani V, Sanz-Moreno V. Amoeboid migration in health and disease: Immune responses versus cancer dissemination. Front Cell Dev Biol 2023; 10:1091801. [PMID: 36699013 PMCID: PMC9869768 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1091801] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell migration is crucial for efficient immune responses and is aberrantly used by cancer cells during metastatic dissemination. Amoeboid migrating cells use myosin II-powered blebs to propel themselves, and change morphology and direction. Immune cells use amoeboid strategies to respond rapidly to infection or tissue damage, which require quick passage through several barriers, including blood, lymph and interstitial tissues, with complex and varied environments. Amoeboid migration is also used by metastatic cancer cells to aid their migration, dissemination and survival, whereby key mechanisms are hijacked from professionally motile immune cells. We explore important parallels observed between amoeboid immune and cancer cells. We also consider key distinctions that separate the lifespan, state and fate of these cell types as they migrate and/or fulfil their function. Finally, we reflect on unexplored areas of research that would enhance our understanding of how tumour cells use immune cell strategies during metastasis, and how to target these processes.
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10
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Pawluchin A, Galic M. Moving through a changing world: Single cell migration in 2D vs. 3D. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1080995. [PMID: 36605722 PMCID: PMC9810339 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1080995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Migration of single adherent cells is frequently observed in the developing and adult organism and has been the subject of many studies. Yet, while elegant work has elucidated molecular and mechanical cues affecting motion dynamics on a flat surface, it remains less clear how cells migrate in a 3D setting. In this review, we explore the changing parameters encountered by cells navigating through a 3D microenvironment compared to cells crawling on top of a 2D surface, and how these differences alter subcellular structures required for propulsion. We further discuss how such changes at the micro-scale impact motion pattern at the macro-scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Pawluchin
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical Faculty, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- CIM-IMRPS Graduate Program, Münster, Germany
| | - Milos Galic
- Institute of Medical Physics and Biophysics, Medical Faculty, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
- Cells in Motion Interfaculty Centre, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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11
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Stotsky JA, Othmer HG. The effects of internal forces and membrane heterogeneity on three-dimensional cell shapes. J Math Biol 2022; 86:1. [PMID: 36427179 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-022-01836-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2022] [Revised: 11/07/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
The shape of cells and the control thereof plays a central role in a variety of cellular processes, including endo- and exocytosis, cell division and cell movement. Intra- and extracellular forces control the shapes, and while the shape changes in some processes such as exocytosis are intracellularly-controlled and localized in the cell, movement requires force transmission to the environment, and the feedback from it can affect the cell shape and mode of movement used. The shape of a cell is determined by its cytoskeleton (CSK), and thus shape changes involved in various processes involve controlled remodeling of the CSK. While much is known about individual components involved in these processes, an integrated understanding of how intra- and extracellular signals are coupled to the control of the mechanical changes involved is not at hand for any of them. As a first step toward understanding the interaction between intracellular forces imposed on the membrane and cell shape, we investigate the role of distributed surrogates for cortical forces in producing the observed three-dimensional shapes. We show how different balances of applied forces lead to such shapes, that there are different routes to the same end state, and that state transitions between axisymmetric shapes need not all be axisymmetric. Examples of the force distributions that lead to protrusions are given, and the shape changes induced by adhesion of a cell to a surface are studied. The results provide a reference framework for developing detailed models of intracellular force distributions observed experimentally, and provide a basis for studying how movement of a cell in a tissue or fluid is influenced by its shape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jay A Stotsky
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 100190, USA.
| | - Hans G Othmer
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, 100190, USA
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12
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Callan-Jones A. Self-organization in amoeboid motility. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:1000071. [PMID: 36313569 PMCID: PMC9614430 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.1000071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Amoeboid motility has come to refer to a spectrum of cell migration modes enabling a cell to move in the absence of strong, specific adhesion. To do so, cells have evolved a range of motile surface movements whose physical principles are now coming into view. In response to external cues, many cells—and some single-celled-organisms—have the capacity to turn off their default migration mode. and switch to an amoeboid mode. This implies a restructuring of the migration machinery at the cell scale and suggests a close link between cell polarization and migration mediated by self-organizing mechanisms. Here, I review recent theoretical models with the aim of providing an integrative, physical picture of amoeboid migration.
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13
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Li Y, Chen M, Chang W. Roles of the nucleus in leukocyte migration. J Leukoc Biol 2022; 112:771-783. [PMID: 35916042 DOI: 10.1002/jlb.1mr0622-473rr] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2021] [Revised: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Leukocytes patrol our bodies in search of pathogens and migrate to sites of injury in response to various stimuli. Rapid and directed leukocyte motility is therefore crucial to our immunity. The nucleus is the largest and stiffest cellular organelle and a mechanical obstacle for migration through constrictions. However, the nucleus is also essential for 3D cell migration. Here, we review the roles of the nucleus in leukocyte migration, focusing on how cells deform their nuclei to aid cell motility and the contributions of the nucleus to cell migration. We discuss the regulation of the nuclear biomechanics by the nuclear lamina and how it, together with the cytoskeleton, modulates the shapes of leukocyte nuclei. We then summarize the functions of nesprins and SUN proteins in leukocytes and discuss how forces are exerted on the nucleus. Finally, we examine the mechanical roles of the nucleus in cell migration, including its roles in regulating the direction of migration and path selection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yutao Li
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Mengqi Chen
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Wakam Chang
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
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14
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Godeau AL, Leoni M, Comelles J, Guyomar T, Lieb M, Delanoë-Ayari H, Ott A, Harlepp S, Sens P, Riveline D. 3D single cell migration driven by temporal correlation between oscillating force dipoles. eLife 2022; 11:71032. [PMID: 35899947 PMCID: PMC9395190 DOI: 10.7554/elife.71032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/06/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Directional cell locomotion requires symmetry breaking between the front and rear of the cell. In some cells, symmetry breaking manifests itself in a directional flow of actin from the front to the rear of the cell. Many cells, especially in physiological 3D matrices do not show such coherent actin dynamics and present seemingly competing protrusion/retraction dynamics at their front and back. How symmetry breaking manifests itself for such cells is therefore elusive. We take inspiration from the scallop theorem proposed by Purcell for micro-swimmers in Newtonian fluids: self-propelled objects undergoing persistent motion at low Reynolds number must follow a cycle of shape changes that breaks temporal symmetry. We report similar observations for cells crawling in 3D. We quantified cell motion using a combination of 3D live cell imaging, visualization of the matrix displacement and a minimal model with multipolar expansion. We show that our cells embedded in a 3D matrix form myosin-driven force dipoles at both sides of the nucleus, that locally and periodically pinch the matrix. The existence of a phase shift between the two dipoles is required for directed cell motion which manifests itself as cycles with finite area in the dipole-quadrupole diagram, a formal equivalence to the Purcell cycle. We confirm this mechanism by triggering local dipolar contractions with a laser. This leads to directed motion. Our study reveals that these cells control their motility by synchronizing dipolar forces distributed at front and back. This result opens new strategies to externally control cell motion as well as for the design of micro-crawlers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amélie Luise Godeau
- Laboratory of Cell Physics, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IGBMC, Illkirch, France
| | | | - Jordi Comelles
- Laboratory of Cell Physics, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IGBMC, Illkirch, France
| | - Tristan Guyomar
- Laboratory of Cell Physics, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IGBMC, Illkirch, France
| | - Michele Lieb
- Laboratory of Cell Physics, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IGBMC, Illkirch, France
| | - Hélène Delanoë-Ayari
- Univ. Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS UMR 5306, LyonVilleurbanne Cedex, France
| | - Albrecht Ott
- Universität des Saarlandes, Saarbrücken, Germany
| | - Sebastien Harlepp
- INSERM UMR S1109, Institut d'Hématologie et d'Immunologie, Strasbourg, France
| | - Pierre Sens
- Laboratoire Physico Chimie Curie, Institut Curie, CNRS UMR168, Paris, France
| | - Daniel Riveline
- Development and stem cells, University of Strasbourg, CNRS, IGBMC, Illkirch, France
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15
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Actin Turnover Required for Adhesion-Independent Bleb Migration. FLUIDS 2022. [DOI: 10.3390/fluids7050173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Cell migration is critical for many vital processes, such as wound healing, as well as harmful processes, such as cancer metastasis. Experiments have highlighted the diversity in migration strategies employed by cells in physiologically relevant environments. In 3D fibrous matrices and confinement between two surfaces, some cells migrate using round membrane protrusions, called blebs. In bleb-based migration, the role of substrate adhesion is thought to be minimal, and it remains unclear if a cell can migrate without any adhesion complexes. We present a 2D computational fluid-structure model of a cell using cycles of bleb expansion and retraction in a channel with several geometries. The cell model consists of a plasma membrane, an underlying actin cortex, and viscous cytoplasm. Cellular structures are immersed in viscous fluid which permeates them, and the fluid equations are solved using the method of regularized Stokeslets. Simulations show that the cell cannot effectively migrate when the actin cortex is modeled as a purely elastic material. We find that cells do migrate in rigid channels if actin turnover is included with a viscoelastic description for the cortex. Our study highlights the non-trivial relationship between cell rheology and its external environment during migration with cytoplasmic streaming.
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16
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Cells responding to chemoattractant on a structured substrate. Biophys J 2022; 121:2557-2567. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2022.05.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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17
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Gaertner F, Reis-Rodrigues P, de Vries I, Hons M, Aguilera J, Riedl M, Leithner A, Tasciyan S, Kopf A, Merrin J, Zheden V, Kaufmann WA, Hauschild R, Sixt M. WASp triggers mechanosensitive actin patches to facilitate immune cell migration in dense tissues. Dev Cell 2022; 57:47-62.e9. [PMID: 34919802 PMCID: PMC8751638 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2021.11.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
When crawling through the body, leukocytes often traverse tissues that are densely packed with extracellular matrix and other cells, and this raises the question: How do leukocytes overcome compressive mechanical loads? Here, we show that the actin cortex of leukocytes is mechanoresponsive and that this responsiveness requires neither force sensing via the nucleus nor adhesive interactions with a substrate. Upon global compression of the cell body as well as local indentation of the plasma membrane, Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (WASp) assembles into dot-like structures, providing activation platforms for Arp2/3 nucleated actin patches. These patches locally push against the external load, which can be obstructing collagen fibers or other cells, and thereby create space to facilitate forward locomotion. We show in vitro and in vivo that this WASp function is rate limiting for ameboid leukocyte migration in dense but not in loose environments and is required for trafficking through diverse tissues such as skin and lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florian Gaertner
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
| | | | - Ingrid de Vries
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Miroslav Hons
- BIOCEV, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Juan Aguilera
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Michael Riedl
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Alexander Leithner
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Saren Tasciyan
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Aglaja Kopf
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Jack Merrin
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Vanessa Zheden
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | | | - Robert Hauschild
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Michael Sixt
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
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18
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Graziani V, Rodriguez-Hernandez I, Maiques O, Sanz-Moreno V. The amoeboid state as part of the epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition programme. Trends Cell Biol 2021; 32:228-242. [PMID: 34836782 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2021.10.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 10/14/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Cell migration is essential for many biological processes, while abnormal cell migration is characteristic of cancer cells. Epithelial cells become motile by undergoing epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), and mesenchymal cells increase migration speed by adopting amoeboid features. This review highlights how amoeboid behaviour is not merely a migration mode but rather a cellular state - within the EMT spectra - by which cancer cells survive, invade and colonise challenging microenvironments. Molecular biomarkers and physicochemical triggers associated with amoeboid behaviour are discussed, including an amoeboid associated tumour microenvironment. We reflect on how amoeboid characteristics support metastasis and how their liabilities could turn into therapeutic opportunities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittoria Graziani
- Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
| | | | - Oscar Maiques
- Barts Cancer Institute, Queen Mary University of London, London EC1M 6BQ, UK
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19
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Suda S, Suda T, Ohmura T, Ichikawa M. Straight-to-Curvilinear Motion Transition of a Swimming Droplet Caused by the Susceptibility to Fluctuations. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2021; 127:088005. [PMID: 34477401 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.127.088005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2020] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
In this Letter, a water-in-oil swimming droplet's transition from straight to curvilinear motion is investigated experimentally and theoretically. An analysis of the experimental results and the model reveal that the motion transition depends on the susceptibility of the droplet's direction of movement to external stimuli as a function of environmental parameters such as droplet size. The simplicity of the present experimental system and the model suggests implications for a general class of transitions in self-propelled swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saori Suda
- Department of Physics, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan
| | - Tomoharu Suda
- Department of Mathematics, Keio University, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
| | - Takuya Ohmura
- Max Planck Institute for Terrestrial Microbiology, 35043 Marburg, Germany
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20
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Wang Q, Wu H. Mathematical modeling of chemotaxis guided amoeboid cell swimming. Phys Biol 2021; 18. [PMID: 33853049 DOI: 10.1088/1478-3975/abf7d8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2021] [Accepted: 04/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Cells and microorganisms adopt various strategies to migrate in response to different environmental stimuli. To date, many modeling research has focused on the crawling-basedDictyostelium discoideum(Dd) cells migration induced by chemotaxis, yet recent experimental results reveal that even without adhesion or contact to a substrate, Dd cells can still swim to follow chemoattractant signals. In this paper, we develop a modeling framework to investigate the chemotaxis induced amoeboid cell swimming dynamics. A minimal swimming system consists of one deformable Dd amoeboid cell and a dilute suspension of bacteria, and the bacteria produce chemoattractant signals that attract the Dd cell. We use themathematical amoeba modelto generate Dd cell deformation and solve the resulting low Reynolds number flows, and use a moving mesh based finite volume method to solve the reaction-diffusion-convection equation. Using the computational model, we show that chemotaxis guides a swimming Dd cell to follow and catch bacteria, while on the other hand, bacterial rheotaxis may help the bacteria to escape from the predator Dd cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qixuan Wang
- Department of Mathematics, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America.,Interdisciplinary Center for Quantitative Modeling in Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, United States of America
| | - Hao Wu
- Department of Polymer Science and Engineering, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, United States of America
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21
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Aoun L, Nègre P, Gonsales C, Seveau de Noray V, Brustlein S, Biarnes-Pelicot M, Valignat MP, Theodoly O. Leukocyte transmigration and longitudinal forward-thrusting force in a microfluidic Transwell device. Biophys J 2021; 120:2205-2221. [PMID: 33838136 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2021.03.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 03/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Transmigration of leukocytes across blood vessels walls is a critical step of the immune response. Transwell assays examine transmigration properties in vitro by counting cells passages through a membrane; however, the difficulty of in situ imaging hampers a clear disentanglement of the roles of adhesion, chemokinesis, and chemotaxis. We used here microfluidic Transwells to image the cells' transition from 2D migration on a surface to 3D migration in a confining microchannel and measure cells longitudinal forward-thrusting force in microchannels. Primary human effector T lymphocytes adhering with integrins LFA-1 (αLβ2) had a marked propensity to transmigrate in Transwells without chemotactic cue. Both adhesion and contractility were important to overcome the critical step of nucleus penetration but were remarkably dispensable for 3D migration in smooth microchannels deprived of topographic features. Transmigration in smooth channels was qualitatively consistent with a propulsion by treadmilling of cell envelope and squeezing of cell trailing edge. Stalling conditions of 3D migration were then assessed by imposing pressure drops across microchannels. Without specific adhesion, the cells slid backward with subnanonewton forces, showing that 3D migration under stress is strongly limited by a lack of adhesion and friction with channels. With specific LFA-1 mediated adhesion, stalling occurred at around 3 and 6 nN in 2 × 4 and 4 × 4 μm2 channels, respectively, supporting that stalling of adherent cells was under pressure control rather than force control. The stall pressure of 4 mbar is consistent with the pressure of actin filament polymerization that mediates lamellipod growth. The arrest of adherent cells under stress therefore seems controlled by the compression of the cell leading edge, which perturbs cells front-rear polarization and triggers adhesion failure or polarization reversal. Although stalling assays in microfluidic Transwells do not mimic in vivo transmigration, they provide a powerful tool to scrutinize 2D and 3D migration, barotaxis, and chemotaxis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurene Aoun
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Paulin Nègre
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Cristina Gonsales
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | | | - Sophie Brustlein
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | | | - Marie-Pierre Valignat
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Olivier Theodoly
- LAI, Aix-Marseille Univ, CNRS, INSERM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France.
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22
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Serra ND, Sundaram MV. Transcytosis in the development and morphogenesis of epithelial tissues. EMBO J 2021; 40:e106163. [PMID: 33792936 DOI: 10.15252/embj.2020106163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2020] [Revised: 12/21/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Transcytosis is a form of specialized transport through which an extracellular cargo is endocytosed, shuttled across the cytoplasm in membrane-bound vesicles, and secreted at a different plasma membrane surface. This important process allows membrane-impermeable macromolecules to pass through a cell and become accessible to adjacent cells and tissue compartments. Transcytosis also promotes redistribution of plasma membrane proteins and lipids to different regions of the cell surface. Here we review transcytosis and highlight in vivo studies showing how developing epithelial cells use it to change shape, to migrate, and to relocalize signaling molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicholas D Serra
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - Meera V Sundaram
- Department of Genetics, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
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23
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Garcia-Seyda N, Seveau V, Manca F, Biarnes-Pelicot M, Valignat MP, Bajénoff M, Theodoly O. Human neutrophils swim and phagocytise bacteria. Biol Cell 2020; 113:28-38. [PMID: 33616999 DOI: 10.1111/boc.202000084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2020] [Revised: 09/30/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND INFORMATION Leukocytes migrate in an amoeboid fashion while patrolling our organism in the search for infection or tissue damage. Their capacity to migrate has been proven integrin independent, however, non-specific adhesion or confinement remain a requisite in current models of cell migration. This idea has been challenged twice within the last decade with human neutrophils and effector T lymphocytes, which were shown to migrate in free suspension, a phenomenon termed swimming. While the relevance of leukocyte swimming in vivo remains under judgment, a growing amount of clinical evidence demonstrates that leukocytes are indeed found in liquid-filled body cavities, occasionally with phagocyted pathogens, such as in the amniotic fluid, the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), or the eye vitreous and aqueous humor. RESULTS We studied in vitro swimming of primary human neutrophils in the presence of live bacteria, in 2 and 3 dimensions. We show that swimming neutrophils perform phagocytosis of bacteria in suspension. By micropatterning live bacteria on a substrate with an optical technique, we further prove that they use chemotaxis to swim towards their targets. Moreover, we provide evidence that neutrophil navigation can alternate between adherent and non-adherent modes. CONCLUSIONS Our results suggest that human neutrophils do not rely on adhesion to carry out their functions, supporting a versatile phagocytic function adaptable to the various environmental conditions encountered in vivo, as already suggested by clinical data. SIGNIFICANCE We verified a claim stated 10 years ago and never reproduced, on the capacity of human neutrophils to swim and perform swimming chemotaxis. We further extended those results to prove that swimming neutrophils can phagocytise bacteria, disregarding adhesion nor confinement as a requisite for accomplishing their function, which differs with current paradigms of leukocyte migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Garcia-Seyda
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France.,Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, CIML, Marseille, France
| | - Valentine Seveau
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Fabio Manca
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | | | - Marie-Pierre Valignat
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
| | - Marc Bajénoff
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, CIML, Marseille, France
| | - Olivier Theodoly
- Aix Marseille Univ, Inserm, CNRS, Turing Center for Living Systems, LAI, Marseille, France
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24
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Stroka KM. Swimming Cells Can Stay in Shape. Biophys J 2020; 119:1048-1049. [PMID: 32853560 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly M Stroka
- Fischell Department of Bioengineering, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Biophysics Program, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland; Center for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland; Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Maryland, Baltimore, Maryland.
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25
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Silverberg O, Demir E, Mishler G, Hosoume B, Trivedi N, Tisch C, Plascencia D, Pak OS, Araci IE. Realization of a push-me-pull-you swimmer at low Reynolds numbers. BIOINSPIRATION & BIOMIMETICS 2020; 15:064001. [PMID: 32620000 DOI: 10.1088/1748-3190/aba2b9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2020] [Accepted: 07/03/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Locomotion at low Reynolds numbers encounters stringent physical constraints due to the dominance of viscous over inertial forces. A variety of swimming microorganisms have demonstrated diverse strategies to generate self-propulsion in the absence of inertia. In particular, ameboid and euglenoid movements exploit shape deformations of the cell body for locomotion. Inspired by these biological organisms, the 'push-me-pull-you' (PMPY) swimmer (Avron J Eet al2005New J. Phys.7234) represents an elegant artificial swimmer that can escape from the constraints of the scallop theorem and generate self-propulsion in highly viscous fluid environments. In this work, we present the first experimental realization of the PMPY swimmer, which consists of a pair of expandable spheres connected by an extensible link. We designed and constructed robotic PMPY swimmers and characterized their propulsion performance in highly viscous silicone oil in dynamically similar, macroscopic experiments. The proof-of-concept demonstrates the feasibility and robustness of the PMPY mechanism as a viable locomotion strategy at low Reynolds numbers.
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Affiliation(s)
- O Silverberg
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - E Demir
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
- Beijing Computational Science Research Center, Beijing 100193, China
| | - G Mishler
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - B Hosoume
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - N Trivedi
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - C Tisch
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - D Plascencia
- Department of Bioengineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - O S Pak
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, Santa Clara University, 500 El Camino Real, CA 95053, United States of America
| | - I E Araci
- Beijing Computational Science Research Center, Beijing 100193, China
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26
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Aoun L, Farutin A, Garcia-Seyda N, Nègre P, Rizvi MS, Tlili S, Song S, Luo X, Biarnes-Pelicot M, Galland R, Sibarita JB, Michelot A, Hivroz C, Rafai S, Valignat MP, Misbah C, Theodoly O. Amoeboid Swimming Is Propelled by Molecular Paddling in Lymphocytes. Biophys J 2020; 119:1157-1177. [PMID: 32882187 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2020.07.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2019] [Revised: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mammalian cells developed two main migration modes. The slow mesenchymatous mode, like crawling of fibroblasts, relies on maturation of adhesion complexes and actin fiber traction, whereas the fast amoeboid mode, observed exclusively for leukocytes and cancer cells, is characterized by weak adhesion, highly dynamic cell shapes, and ubiquitous motility on two-dimensional and in three-dimensional solid matrix. In both cases, interactions with the substrate by adhesion or friction are widely accepted as a prerequisite for mammalian cell motility, which precludes swimming. We show here experimental and computational evidence that leukocytes do swim, and that efficient propulsion is not fueled by waves of cell deformation but by a rearward and inhomogeneous treadmilling of the cell external membrane. Our model consists of a molecular paddling by transmembrane proteins linked to and advected by the actin cortex, whereas freely diffusing transmembrane proteins hinder swimming. Furthermore, continuous paddling is enabled by a combination of external treadmilling and selective recycling by internal vesicular transport of cortex-bound transmembrane proteins. This mechanism explains observations that swimming is five times slower than the retrograde flow of cortex and also that lymphocytes are motile in nonadherent confined environments. Resultantly, the ubiquitous ability of mammalian amoeboid cells to migrate in two dimensions or three dimensions and with or without adhesion can be explained for lymphocytes by a single machinery of heterogeneous membrane treadmilling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurene Aoun
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | | | - Nicolas Garcia-Seyda
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Paulin Nègre
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | | | - Sham Tlili
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France; Aix Marseille University, CNRS, IBDM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Solene Song
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Xuan Luo
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Martine Biarnes-Pelicot
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Rémi Galland
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France
| | - Jean-Baptiste Sibarita
- Univ. Bordeaux, CNRS, Interdisciplinary Institute for Neuroscience, IINS, UMR 5297, Bordeaux, France
| | - Alphée Michelot
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, IBDM, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Claire Hivroz
- Institut Curie, PSL Research University, INSERM U932, Integrative analysis of T cell activation team, Paris, France
| | - Salima Rafai
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, Grenoble, France
| | - Marie-Pierre Valignat
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France
| | - Chaouqi Misbah
- University Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, Grenoble, France.
| | - Olivier Theodoly
- Aix Marseille University, CNRS, INSERM, LAI, Turing Centre for Living Systems, Marseille, France.
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27
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Cheng Y, Felix B, Othmer HG. The Roles of Signaling in Cytoskeletal Changes, Random Movement, Direction-Sensing and Polarization of Eukaryotic Cells. Cells 2020; 9:E1437. [PMID: 32531876 PMCID: PMC7348768 DOI: 10.3390/cells9061437] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2020] [Accepted: 05/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Movement of cells and tissues is essential at various stages during the lifetime of an organism, including morphogenesis in early development, in the immune response to pathogens, and during wound-healing and tissue regeneration. Individual cells are able to move in a variety of microenvironments (MEs) (A glossary of the acronyms used herein is given at the end) by suitably adapting both their shape and how they transmit force to the ME, but how cells translate environmental signals into the forces that shape them and enable them to move is poorly understood. While many of the networks involved in signal detection, transduction and movement have been characterized, how intracellular signals control re-building of the cyctoskeleton to enable movement is not understood. In this review we discuss recent advances in our understanding of signal transduction networks related to direction-sensing and movement, and some of the problems that remain to be solved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yougan Cheng
- Bristol Myers Squibb, Route 206 & Province Line Road, Princeton, NJ 08543, USA;
| | - Bryan Felix
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55445, USA;
| | - Hans G. Othmer
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55445, USA;
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28
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Jeggle J, Stenhammar J, Wittkowski R. Pair-distribution function of active Brownian spheres in two spatial dimensions: Simulation results and analytic representation. J Chem Phys 2020; 152:194903. [PMID: 33687241 DOI: 10.1063/1.5140725] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigate the full pair-distribution function of a homogeneous suspension of spherical active Brownian particles interacting by a Weeks-Chandler-Andersen potential in two spatial dimensions. The full pair-distribution function depends on three coordinates describing the relative positions and orientations of two particles, the Péclet number specifying the activity of the particles, and their mean packing density. This five-dimensional function is obtained from Brownian dynamics simulations. We discuss its structure taking into account all of its degrees of freedom. In addition, we present an approximate analytic expression for the product of the full pair-distribution function and the interparticle force. We find that the analytic expression, which is typically needed when deriving analytic models for the collective dynamics of active Brownian particles, is in good agreement with the simulation results. The results of this work can thus be expected to be helpful for the further theoretical investigation of active Brownian particles as well as nonequilibrium statistical physics in general.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Jeggle
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Center for Soft Nanoscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany
| | - Joakim Stenhammar
- Division of Physical Chemistry, Lund University, SE-221 00 Lund, Sweden
| | - Raphael Wittkowski
- Institut für Theoretische Physik, Center for Soft Nanoscience, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität Münster, D-48149 Münster, Germany
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29
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Diverse roles of non-muscle myosin II contractility in 3D cell migration. Essays Biochem 2020; 63:497-508. [PMID: 31551323 DOI: 10.1042/ebc20190026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2019] [Revised: 08/15/2019] [Accepted: 08/27/2019] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
All is flux, nothing stays still. Heraclitus of Ephesus' characterization of the universe holds true for cells within animals and for proteins within cells. In this review, we examine the dynamics of actin and non-muscle myosin II within cells, and how their dynamics power the movement of cells within tissues. The 3D environment that migrating cells encounter along their path also changes over time, and cells can adopt various mechanisms of motility, depending on the topography, mechanics and chemical composition of their surroundings. We describe the differential spatio-temporal regulation of actin and myosin II-mediated contractility in mesenchymal, lobopodial, amoeboid, and swimming modes of cell migration. After briefly reviewing the biochemistry of myosin II, we discuss the role actomyosin contractility plays in the switch between modes of 3D migration that cells use to adapt to changing environments.
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30
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Abstract
Several prokaryotes and eukaryotic cells swim in the presence of deformable and rigid surfaces that form confinement. The most commonly observed examples from biological systems are motility of leukocytes and pathogens present within the blood suspension through a microvascular network, and locomotion of eukaryotic cells such as immune system cells and cancerous cells through interstices between soft interstitial cells and the extracellular matrix within the interstitial tissue. This motivated us to investigate numerically the flow dynamics of amoeboid swimming in a flexible channel. The effects of wall stiffness and channel confinement on the flow dynamics and swimmer motion are studied. The swimmer motion through the flexible channel is substantially decelerated compared to the rigid channel. The strong confinement in the amply flexible channel imprisons the swimmer by severely restricting its forward motion. The swimmer velocity in a stiff channel displays nonmonotonic variation with the confinement while it shows monotonic reduction in a highly flexible channel. The physical rationale behind such distinct velocity behaviour in flexible and rigid channels is illustrated using an instantaneous flow field and flow history displayed by the swimmer. This behavior follows from a subtle interplay between the shape changes exhibited by the swimmer and the wall compliance. This study may aid in understanding the influence of elasticity of the surrounding environment on cell motility in immunological surveillance and invasiveness of cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swapnil Dalal
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000 Grenoble, France.
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31
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Mai MH, Camley BA. Hydrodynamic effects on the motility of crawling eukaryotic cells. SOFT MATTER 2020; 16:1349-1358. [PMID: 31934705 DOI: 10.1039/c9sm01797f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Eukaryotic cell motility is crucial during development, wound healing, the immune response, and cancer metastasis. Some eukaryotic cells can swim, but cells more commonly adhere to and crawl along the extracellular matrix. We study the relationship between hydrodynamics and adhesion that describe whether a cell is swimming, crawling, or combining these motions. Our simple model of a cell, based on the three-sphere swimmer, is capable of both swimming and crawling. As cell-matrix adhesion strength increases, the influence of hydrodynamics on migration diminishes. Cells with significant adhesion can crawl with speeds much larger than their nonadherent, swimming counterparts. We predict that, while most eukaryotic cells are in the strong-adhesion limit, increasing environment viscosity or decreasing cell-matrix adhesion could lead to significant hydrodynamic effects even in crawling cells. Signatures of hydrodynamic effects include a dependence of cell speed on the presence of a nearby substrate or interactions between noncontacting cells. These signatures will be suppressed at large adhesion strengths, but even strongly adherent cells will generate relevant fluid flows that will advect nearby passive particles and swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa H Mai
- Department of Biophysics, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
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32
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Martin P, Wood W, Franz A. Cell migration by swimming: Drosophila adipocytes as a new in vivo model of adhesion-independent motility. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2019; 100:160-166. [PMID: 31812445 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.11.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2019] [Revised: 11/12/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Several cell lineages migrate through the developing and adult tissues of our bodies utilising a variety of modes of motility to suit the different substrates and environments they encounter en route to their destinations. Here we describe a novel adhesion-independent mode of single cell locomotion utilised by Drosophila fat body cells - the equivalent of vertebrate adipocytes. Like their human counterpart, these large cells were previously presumed to be immotile. However, in the Drosophila pupa fat body cells appear to be motile and migrate in a directed way towards wounds by peristaltic swimming through the hemolymph. The propulsive force is generated from a wave of cortical actomyosin that travels rearwards along the length of the cell. We discuss how this swimming mode of motility overcomes the physical constraints of microscopic objects moving in fluids, how fat body cells switch on other "motility machinery" to plug the wound on arrival, and whether other cell lineages in Drosophila and other organisms may, under certain circumstances, also adopt swimming as an effective mode of migration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Martin
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK; School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, BS8 1TD, UK; School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff, CF14 4XN, UK
| | - Will Wood
- Centre for Inflammation Research, University of Edinburgh, Queen's Medical Research Institute, 47 Little France Crescent, Edinburgh, EH16 4TJ, UK
| | - Anna Franz
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, 21 University Street, London, WC1E 6DE, UK.
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33
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Contour Models of Cellular Adhesion. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019. [PMID: 31612451 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-17593-1_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
The development of traction-force microscopy, in the past two decades, has created the unprecedented opportunity of performing direct mechanical measurements on living cells as they adhere or crawl on uniform or micro-patterned substrates. Simultaneously, this has created the demand for a theoretical framework able to decipher the experimental observations, shed light on the complex biomechanical processes that govern the interaction between the cell and the extracellular matrix and offer testable predictions. Contour models of cellular adhesion, represent one of the simplest and yet most insightful approach in this problem. Rooted in the paradigm of active matter, these models allow to explicitly determine the shape of the cell edge and calculate the traction forces experienced by the substrate, starting from the internal and peripheral contractile stresses as well as the passive restoring forces and bending moments arising within the actin cortex and the plasma membrane. In this chapter I provide a general overview of contour models of cellular adhesion and review the specific cases of cells equipped with isotropic and anisotropic actin cytoskeleton as well as the role of bending elasticity.
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34
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Abstract
Optimal gait design is important for micro-organisms and micro-robots that propel themselves in a fluid environment in the absence of external force or torque. The simplest models of shape changes are those that comprise a series of linked-spheres that can change their separation and/or their sizes. We examine the dynamics of three existing linked-sphere types of modeling swimmers in low Reynolds number Newtonian fluids using asymptotic analysis, and obtain their optimal swimming strokes by solving the Euler–Lagrange equation using the shooting method. The numerical results reveal that (1) with the minimal 2 degrees of freedom in shape deformations, the model swimmer adopting the mixed shape deformation modes strategy is more efficient than those with a single-mode of shape deformation modes, and (2) the swimming efficiency mostly decreases as the number of spheres increases, indicating that more degrees of freedom in shape deformations might not be a good strategy in optimal gait design in low Reynolds number locomotion.
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35
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Farutin A, Étienne J, Misbah C, Recho P. Crawling in a Fluid. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2019; 123:118101. [PMID: 31573254 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.123.118101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that mammalian cells not only crawl on substrates but can also swim in fluids. To elucidate the mechanisms of the onset of motility of cells in suspension, a model which couples actin and myosin kinetics to fluid flow is proposed and solved for a spherical shape. The swimming speed is extracted in terms of key parameters. We analytically find super- and subcritical bifurcations from a nonmotile to a motile state and also spontaneous polarity oscillations that arise from a Hopf bifurcation. Relaxing the spherical assumption, the obtained shapes show appealing trends.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chaouqi Misbah
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000 Grenoble, France
| | - Pierre Recho
- Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, F-38000 Grenoble, France
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36
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Abstract
Coordinated changes of cell shape are often the result of the excitable, wave-like dynamics of the actin cytoskeleton. New work shows that, in migrating cells, protrusion waves arise from mechanochemical crosstalk between adhesion sites, membrane tension and the actin protrusive machinery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Müller
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Michael Sixt
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria (IST Austria), am Campus 1, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
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37
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Binagia JP, Guido CJ, Shaqfeh ESG. Three-dimensional simulations of undulatory and amoeboid swimmers in viscoelastic fluids. SOFT MATTER 2019; 15:4836-4855. [PMID: 31155624 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm02518e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Microorganisms often move through viscoelastic environments, as biological fluids frequently have a rich microstructure owing to the presence of large polymeric molecules. Research on the effect of fluid elasticity on the swimming kinematics of these organisms has usually been focused on those that move via cilia or flagellum. Experimentally, Shen (X. N. Shen et al., Phys. Rev. Lett., 2011, 106, 208101) reported that the nematode C. elegans, a model organism used to study undulatory motion, swims more slowly as the Deborah number describing the fluid's elasticity is increased. This phenomenon has not been thoroughly studied via a fully resolved three-dimensional simulation; moreover, the effect of fluid elasticity on the swimming speed of organisms moving via euglenoid movement, such as E. gracilis, is completely unknown. In this study, we discuss the simulation of the arbitrary motion of an undulating or pulsating swimmer that occupies finite volume in three dimensions, with the ability to specify any differential viscoelastic rheological model for the surrounding fluid. To accomplish this task, we use a modified version of the Immersed Finite Element Method presented in a previous paper by Guido and Saadat in 2018 (A. Saadat et al., Phys. Rev. E, 2018, 98, 063316). In particular, this version allows for the simulation of deformable swimmers such that they evolve through an arbitrary set of specified shapes via a conformation-driven force. From our analysis, we observe several key trends not found in previous two-dimensional simulations or theoretical analyses for C. elegans, as well as novel results for the amoeboid motion. In particular, we find that regions of high polymer stress concentrated at the head and tail of the swimming C. elegans are created by strong extensional flow fields and are associated with a decrease in swimming speed for a given swimming stroke. In contrast, in two dimensions these regions of stress are commonly found distributed along the entire body, likely owing to the lack of a third dimension for polymer relaxation. A comparison of swim speeds shows that the calculations in two-dimensional simulations result in an over-prediction of the speed reduction. We believe that our simulation tool accurately captures the swimming motion of the two aforementioned model swimmers and furthermore, allows for the simulation of multiple deformable swimmers, as well as more complex swimming geometries. This methodology opens many new possibilities for future studies of swimmers in viscoelastic fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy P Binagia
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
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38
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Shellard A, Mayor R. Supracellular migration - beyond collective cell migration. J Cell Sci 2019; 132:132/8/jcs226142. [PMID: 30988138 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.226142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Collective cell migration is a highly complex process in which groups of cells move together. A fundamental question is how cell ensembles can migrate efficiently. In some cases, the group is no more than a collection of individual cells. In others, the group behaves as a supracellular unit, whereby the cell group could be considered as a giant 'supracell', the concept of which was conceived over a century ago. The development of recent tools has provided considerable evidence that cell collectives are highly cooperative, and their migration can better be understood at the tissue level, rather than at the cell level. In this Review, we will define supracellular migration as a type of collective cell migration that operates at a scale higher than the individual cells. We will discuss key concepts of supracellular migration, review recent evidence of collectives exhibiting supracellular features and argue that many seemingly complex collective movements could be better explained by considering the participating cells as supracellular entities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adam Shellard
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Roberto Mayor
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University College London, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK
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39
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Kamprad N, Witt H, Schröder M, Kreis CT, Bäumchen O, Janshoff A, Tarantola M. Adhesion strategies of Dictyostelium discoideum- a force spectroscopy study. NANOSCALE 2018; 10:22504-22519. [PMID: 30480299 DOI: 10.1039/c8nr07107a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Biological adhesion is essential for all motile cells and generally limits locomotion to suitably functionalized substrates displaying a compatible surface chemistry. However, organisms that face vastly varying environmental challenges require a different strategy. The model organism Dictyostelium discoideum (D.d.), a slime mould dwelling in the soil, faces the challenge of overcoming variable chemistry by employing the fundamental forces of colloid science. To understand the origin of D.d. adhesion, we realized and modified a variety of conditions for the amoeba comprising the absence and presence of the specific adhesion protein Substrate Adhesion A (sadA), glycolytic degradation, ionic strength, surface hydrophobicity and strength of van der Waals interactions by generating tailored model substrates. By employing AFM-based single cell force spectroscopy we could show that experimental force curves upon retraction exhibit two regimes. The first part up to the critical adhesion force can be described in terms of a continuum model, while the second regime of the curve beyond the critical adhesion force is governed by stochastic unbinding of individual binding partners and bond clusters. We found that D.d. relies on adhesive interactions based on EDL-DLVO (Electrical Double Layer-Derjaguin-Landau-Verwey-Overbeek) forces and contributions from the glycocalix and specialized adhesion molecules like sadA. This versatile mechanism allows the cells to adhere to a large variety of natural surfaces under various conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Kamprad
- Max Planck Institute for Dynamics and Self-Organization, Am Faßberg 17, 37077 Göttingen, Germany.
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40
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Pomp W, Schakenraad K, Balcıoğlu HE, van Hoorn H, Danen EHJ, Merks RMH, Schmidt T, Giomi L. Cytoskeletal Anisotropy Controls Geometry and Forces of Adherent Cells. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2018; 121:178101. [PMID: 30411958 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.121.178101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2017] [Revised: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
We investigate the geometrical and mechanical properties of adherent cells characterized by a highly anisotropic actin cytoskeleton. Using a combination of theoretical work and experiments on micropillar arrays, we demonstrate that the shape of the cell edge is accurately described by elliptical arcs, whose eccentricity expresses the degree of anisotropy of the internal cell stresses. This results in a spatially varying tension along the cell edge, that significantly affects the traction forces exerted by the cell on the substrate. Our work highlights the strong interplay between cell mechanics and geometry and paves the way towards the reconstruction of cellular forces from geometrical data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wim Pomp
- Kamerlingh Onnes-Huygens Laboratory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Koen Schakenraad
- Instituut-Lorentz, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9506, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
- Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9512, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Hayri E Balcıoğlu
- Toxicology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Netherlands
| | - Hedde van Hoorn
- Kamerlingh Onnes-Huygens Laboratory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Erik H J Danen
- Toxicology, Leiden Academic Center for Drug Research, Leiden University, Netherlands
| | - Roeland M H Merks
- Mathematical Institute, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9512, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
- Institute of Biology, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9505, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Thomas Schmidt
- Kamerlingh Onnes-Huygens Laboratory, Leiden University, Niels Bohrweg 2, 2333 CA, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Luca Giomi
- Instituut-Lorentz, Leiden University, P.O. Box 9506, 2300 RA Leiden, Netherlands
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41
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Ranganathan M, Farutin A, Misbah C. Effect of Cytoskeleton Elasticity on Amoeboid Swimming. Biophys J 2018; 115:1316-1329. [PMID: 30177444 PMCID: PMC6170896 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.08.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2017] [Revised: 07/28/2018] [Accepted: 08/02/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Recently, it has been reported that the cells of the immune system, as well as Dictyostelium amoebae, can swim in a bulk fluid by changing their shape repeatedly. We refer to this motion as amoeboid swimming. Here, we explore how the propulsion and the deformation of the cell emerge as an interplay between the active forces that the cell employs to activate the shape changes and the passive, viscoelastic response of the cell membrane, the cytoskeleton, and the surrounding environment. We introduce a model in which the cell is represented by an elastic capsule enclosing a viscous liquid. The motion of the cell is activated by time-dependent forces distributed along its surface. The model is solved numerically using the boundary integral formulation. The cell can swim in a fluid medium using cyclic deformations or strokes. We measure the swimming velocity of the cell as a function of the force amplitude, the stroke frequency, and the viscoelastic properties of the cell and the medium. We show that an increase in the shear modulus leads both to a regular slowdown of the swimming, which is more pronounced for more deflated swimmers, and to a tendency toward cell buckling. For a given stroke frequency, the swimming velocity shows a quadratic dependence on force amplitude for small forces, as expected, but saturates for large forces. We propose a scaling relationship for the dependence of swimming velocity on the relevant parameters that qualitatively reproduces the numerical results and allows us to define regimes in which the cell motility is dominated by elastic response or by the effective cortex viscosity. This leads to an estimate of the effective cortex viscosity of 103 Pa ⋅ s for which the two effects are comparable, which is close to that provided by several experiments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madhav Ranganathan
- Department of Chemistry, Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur, Kanpur, India
| | - Alexander Farutin
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, Grenoble, France
| | - Chaouqi Misbah
- Laboratoire Interdisciplinaire de Physique, Université Grenoble Alpes, CNRS, LIPhy, Grenoble, France.
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42
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Wu H, de León MAP, Othmer HG. Getting in shape and swimming: the role of cortical forces and membrane heterogeneity in eukaryotic cells. J Math Biol 2018; 77:595-626. [PMID: 29480329 PMCID: PMC6109630 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-018-1223-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2017] [Revised: 02/12/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has shown that motile cells can adapt their mode of propulsion to the mechanical properties of the environment in which they find themselves-crawling in some environments while swimming in others. The latter can involve movement by blebbing or other cyclic shape changes, and both highly-simplified and more realistic models of these modes have been studied previously. Herein we study swimming that is driven by membrane tension gradients that arise from flows in the actin cortex underlying the membrane, and does not involve imposed cyclic shape changes. Such gradients can lead to a number of different characteristic cell shapes, and our first objective is to understand how different distributions of membrane tension influence the shape of cells in an inviscid quiescent fluid. We then analyze the effects of spatial variation in other membrane properties, and how they interact with tension gradients to determine the shape. We also study the effect of fluid-cell interactions and show how tension leads to cell movement, how the balance between tension gradients and a variable bending modulus determine the shape and direction of movement, and how the efficiency of movement depends on the properties of the fluid and the distribution of tension and bending modulus in the membrane.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hao Wu
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, 270A Vincent Hall, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | | | - Hans G Othmer
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota, 270A Vincent Hall, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
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43
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Othmer HG. Eukaryotic Cell Dynamics from Crawlers to Swimmers. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-COMPUTATIONAL MOLECULAR SCIENCE 2018; 9. [PMID: 30854030 DOI: 10.1002/wcms.1376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Movement requires force transmission to the environment, and motile cells are robustly, though not elegantly, designed nanomachines that often can cope with a variety of environmental conditions by altering the mode of force transmission used. As with humans, the available modes range from momentary attachment to a substrate when crawling, to shape deformations when swimming, and at the cellular level this involves sensing the mechanical properties of the environment and altering the mode appropriately. While many types of cells can adapt their mode of movement to their microenvironment (ME), our understanding of how they detect, transduce and process information from the ME to determine the optimal mode is still rudimentary. The shape and integrity of a cell is determined by its cytoskeleton (CSK), and thus the shape changes that may be required to move involve controlled remodeling of the CSK. Motion in vivo is often in response to extracellular signals, which requires the ability to detect such signals and transduce them into the shape changes and force generation needed for movement. Thus the nanomachine is complex, and while much is known about individual components involved in movement, an integrated understanding of motility in even simple cells such as bacteria is not at hand. In this review we discuss recent advances in our understanding of cell motility and some of the problems remaining to be solved.
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Affiliation(s)
- H G Othmer
- School of Mathematics, University of Minnesota
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44
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Campbell EJ, Bagchi P. A computational model of amoeboid cell motility in the presence of obstacles. SOFT MATTER 2018; 14:5741-5763. [PMID: 29873659 DOI: 10.1039/c8sm00457a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Locomotion of amoeboid cells is mediated by finger-like protrusions of the cell body, known as pseudopods, which grow, bifurcate, and retract in a dynamic fashion. Pseudopods are the primary mode of locomotion for many cells within the human body, such as leukocytes, embryonic cells, and metastatic cancer cells. Amoeboid motility is a complex and multiscale process, which involves bio-molecular reactions, cell deformation, and cytoplasmic and extracellular fluid motion. Additionally, cells within the human body are subject to a confined 3D environment known as the extra-cellular matrix (ECM), which resembles a fluid-filled porous medium. In this article, we present a 3D, multiphysics computational approach coupling fluid mechanics, solid mechanics, and a pattern formation model to simulate locomotion of amoeboid cells through a porous matrix composed of a viscous fluid and an array of finite-sized spherical obstacles. The model combines reaction-diffusion of activator/inhibitors, extreme deformation of the cell, pseudopod dynamics, cytoplasmic and extracellular fluid motion, and fully resolved extracellular matrix. A surface finite-element method is used to obtain the cell deformation and activator/inhibitor concentrations, while the fluid motion is solved using a combined finite-volume and spectral method. The immersed-boundary methods are used to couple the cell deformation, obstacles, and fluid. The model is able to recreate squeezing and weaving motion of cells through the matrix. We study the influence of matrix porosity, obstacle size, and cell deformability on the motility behavior. It is found that below certain values of these parameters, cell motion is completely inhibited. Phase diagrams are presented depicting such motility limits. Interesting dynamics seen in the presence of obstacles but absent in unconfined medium, such as freezing or cell arrest, probing, doubling-back, and tug-of-war are predicted. Furthermore, persistent unidirectional motion of cells that is often observed in an unconfined medium is shown to be lost in presence of obstacles, and is attributed to an alteration of the pseudopod dynamics. The same mechanism, however, allows the cell to find a new direction to penetrate further into the matrix without being stuck in one place. The results and analysis presented here show a strong coupling between cell deformability and ECM properties, and provide new fluid mechanical insights on amoeboid motility in confined medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Campbell
- Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering Department, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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Bell GRR, Collins SR. "Rho"ing a Cellular Boat with Rearward Membrane Flow. Dev Cell 2018; 46:1-3. [PMID: 29974859 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The physicist Edward Purcell wrote in 1977 about mechanisms that cells could use to propel themselves in a low Reynolds number environment. Reporting in Developmental Cell, O'Neill et al. (2018) provide direct evidence for one of these mechanisms by optogenetically driving the migration of cells suspended in liquid through RhoA activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- George R R Bell
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Sean R Collins
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA.
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46
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Membrane Flow Drives an Adhesion-Independent Amoeboid Cell Migration Mode. Dev Cell 2018; 46:9-22.e4. [PMID: 29937389 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Cells migrate by applying rearward forces against extracellular media. It is unclear how this is achieved in amoeboid migration, which lacks adhesions typical of lamellipodia-driven mesenchymal migration. To address this question, we developed optogenetically controlled models of lamellipodia-driven and amoeboid migration. On a two-dimensional surface, migration speeds in both modes were similar. However, when suspended in liquid, only amoeboid cells exhibited rapid migration accompanied by rearward membrane flow. These cells exhibited increased endocytosis at the back and membrane trafficking from back to front. Genetic or pharmacological perturbation of this polarized trafficking inhibited migration. The ratio of cell migration and membrane flow speeds matched the predicted value from a model where viscous forces tangential to the cell-liquid interface propel the cell forward. Since this mechanism does not require specific molecular interactions with the surrounding medium, it can facilitate amoeboid migration observed in diverse microenvironments during immune function and cancer metastasis.
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Wang Q, Othmer HG. Analysis of a model microswimmer with applications to blebbing cells and mini-robots. J Math Biol 2018; 76:1699-1763. [PMID: 29497820 DOI: 10.1007/s00285-018-1225-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Revised: 01/05/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Recent research has shown that motile cells can adapt their mode of propulsion depending on the environment in which they find themselves. One mode is swimming by blebbing or other shape changes, and in this paper we analyze a class of models for movement of cells by blebbing and of nano-robots in a viscous fluid at low Reynolds number. At the level of individuals, the shape changes comprise volume exchanges between connected spheres that can control their separation, which are simple enough that significant analytical results can be obtained. Our goal is to understand how the efficiency of movement depends on the amplitude and period of the volume exchanges when the spheres approach closely during a cycle. Previous analyses were predicated on wide separation, and we show that the speed increases significantly as the separation decreases due to the strong hydrodynamic interactions between spheres in close proximity. The scallop theorem asserts that at least two degrees of freedom are needed to produce net motion in a cyclic sequence of shape changes, and we show that these degrees can reside in different swimmers whose collective motion is studied. We also show that different combinations of mode sharing can lead to significant differences in the translation and performance of pairs of swimmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qixuan Wang
- 540R Rowland Hall, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, USA.
| | - Hans G Othmer
- School of Mathematics, 270A Vincent Hall, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
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Casano AM, Sixt M. A Fat Lot of Good for Wound Healing. Dev Cell 2018; 44:405-406. [PMID: 29486189 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The insect's fat body combines metabolic and immunological functions. In this issue of Developmental Cell, Franz et al. (2018) show that in Drosophila, cells of the fat body are not static, but can actively "swim" toward sites of epithelial injury, where they physically clog the wound and locally secrete antimicrobial peptides.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Michael Sixt
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, (IST Austria), 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria.
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Franz A, Wood W, Martin P. Fat Body Cells Are Motile and Actively Migrate to Wounds to Drive Repair and Prevent Infection. Dev Cell 2018; 44:460-470.e3. [PMID: 29486196 PMCID: PMC6113741 DOI: 10.1016/j.devcel.2018.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Adipocytes have many functions in various tissues beyond energy storage, including regulating metabolism, growth, and immunity. However, little is known about their role in wound healing. Here we use live imaging of fat body cells, the equivalent of vertebrate adipocytes in Drosophila, to investigate their potential behaviors and functions following skin wounding. We find that pupal fat body cells are not immotile, as previously presumed, but actively migrate to wounds using an unusual adhesion-independent, actomyosin-driven, peristaltic mode of motility. Once at the wound, fat body cells collaborate with hemocytes, Drosophila macrophages, to clear the wound of cell debris; they also tightly seal the epithelial wound gap and locally release antimicrobial peptides to fight wound infection. Thus, fat body cells are motile cells, enabling them to migrate to wounds to undertake several local functions needed to drive wound repair and prevent infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Franz
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK
| | - Will Wood
- School of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK.
| | - Paul Martin
- School of Biochemistry, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK; School of Physiology, Pharmacology and Neuroscience, Biomedical Sciences, University of Bristol, Bristol BS8 1TD, UK; School of Medicine, Cardiff University, Cardiff CF14 4XN, UK.
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Cardenal-Muñoz E, Barisch C, Lefrançois LH, López-Jiménez AT, Soldati T. When Dicty Met Myco, a (Not So) Romantic Story about One Amoeba and Its Intracellular Pathogen. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2018; 7:529. [PMID: 29376033 PMCID: PMC5767268 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2017.00529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
In recent years, Dictyostelium discoideum has become an important model organism to study the cell biology of professional phagocytes. This amoeba not only shares many molecular features with mammalian macrophages, but most of its fundamental signal transduction pathways are conserved in humans. The broad range of existing genetic and biochemical tools, together with its suitability for cell culture and live microscopy, make D. discoideum an ideal and versatile laboratory organism. In this review, we focus on the use of D. discoideum as a phagocyte model for the study of mycobacterial infections, in particular Mycobacterium marinum. We look in detail at the intracellular cycle of M. marinum, from its uptake by D. discoideum to its active or passive egress into the extracellular medium. In addition, we describe the molecular mechanisms that both the mycobacterial invader and the amoeboid host have developed to fight against each other, and compare and contrast with those developed by mammalian phagocytes. Finally, we introduce the methods and specific tools that have been used so far to monitor the D. discoideum-M. marinum interaction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Cardenal-Muñoz
- Department of Biochemistry, Sciences II, Faculty of Sciences, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
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