The DISABLED protein functions in CLATHRIN-mediated synaptic vesicle endocytosis and exoendocytic coupling at the active zone

AP2 Regulates Thickveins Trafficking to Attenuate NMJ Growth Signaling in Drosophila

Compromised endocytosis in neurons leads to synapse overgrowth and altered organization of synaptic proteins. However, the molecular players and the signaling pathways which regulate the process remain poorly understood. Here, we show that σ2-adaptin, one of the subunits of the AP2-complex, genetically interacts with Mad, Medea and Dad (components of BMP signaling) to control neuromuscular junction (NMJ) growth in Drosophila Ultrastructural analysis of σ2-adaptin mutants show an accumulation of large vesicles and membranous structures akin to endosomes at the synapse. We found that mutations in σ2-adaptin lead to an accumulation of Tkv receptors at the presynaptic membrane. Interestingly, the level of small GTPase Rab11 was significantly reduced in the σ2-adaptin mutant synapses. However, expression of Rab11 does not restore the synaptic defects of σ2-adaptin mutations. We propose a model in which AP2 regulates Tkv internalization and endosomal recycling to control synaptic growth.

Lipophorin receptors regulate mushroom body development and complex behaviors in Drosophila

BACKGROUND

Drosophila melanogaster lipophorin receptors (LpRs), LpR1 and LpR2, are members of the LDLR family known to mediate lipid uptake in a range of organisms from Drosophila to humans. The vertebrate orthologs of LpRs, ApoER2 and VLDL-R, function as receptors of a glycoprotein involved in development of the central nervous system, Reelin, which is not present in flies. ApoER2 and VLDL-R are associated with the development and function of the hippocampus and cerebral cortex, important association areas in the mammalian brain, as well as with neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disorders linked to those regions. It is currently unknown whether LpRs play similar roles in the Drosophila brain.

RESULTS

We report that LpR-deficient flies exhibit impaired olfactory memory and sleep patterns, which seem to reflect anatomical defects found in a critical brain association area, the mushroom bodies (MB). Moreover, cultured MB neurons respond to mammalian Reelin by increasing the complexity of their neurite arborization. This effect depends on LpRs and Dab, the Drosophila ortholog of the Reelin signaling adaptor protein Dab1. In vitro, two of the long isoforms of LpRs allow the internalization of Reelin, suggesting that Drosophila LpRs interact with human Reelin to induce downstream cellular events.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings demonstrate that LpRs contribute to MB development and function, supporting the existence of a LpR-dependent signaling in Drosophila, and advance our understanding of the molecular factors functioning in neural systems to generate complex behaviors in this model. Our results further emphasize the importance of Drosophila as a model to investigate the alterations in specific genes contributing to neural disorders.

Cross-talk between clathrin-dependent post-Golgi trafficking and clathrin-mediated endocytosis in Arabidopsis root cells

Coupling of post-Golgi and endocytic membrane transport ensures that the flow of materials to/from the plasma membrane (PM) is properly balanced. The mechanisms underlying the coordinated trafficking of PM proteins in plants, however, are not well understood. In plant cells, clathrin and its adaptor protein complexes, AP-2 and the TPLATE complex (TPC) at the PM, and AP-1 at the trans-Golgi network/early endosome (TGN/EE), function in clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) and post-Golgi trafficking. Here, we utilized mutants with defects in clathrin-dependent post-Golgi trafficking and CME, in combination with other cytological and pharmacological approaches, to further investigate the machinery behind the coordination of protein delivery and recycling to/from the TGN/EE and PM in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) root cells. In mutants with defective AP-2-/TPC-dependent CME, we determined that clathrin and AP-1 recruitment to the TGN/EE as well as exocytosis are significantly impaired. Likewise, defects in AP-1-dependent post-Golgi trafficking and pharmacological inhibition of exocytosis resulted in the reduced association of clathrin and AP-2/TPC subunits with the PM and a reduction in the internalization of cargoes via CME. Together, these results suggest that post-Golgi trafficking and CME are coupled via modulation of clathrin and adaptor protein complex recruitment to the TGN/EE and PM.

Genetic analysis of the Drosophila ESCRT-III complex protein, VPS24, reveals a novel function in lysosome homeostasis

The ESCRT pathway is evolutionarily conserved across eukaryotes and plays key roles in a variety of membrane remodeling processes. A new Drosophila mutant recovered in our forward genetic screens for synaptic transmission mutants mapped to the vps24 gene encoding a subunit of the ESCRT-III complex. Molecular characterization indicated a loss of VPS24 function, however the mutant is viable and thus loss of VPS24 may be studied in a developed multicellular organism. The mutant exhibits deficits in locomotion and lifespan and, notably, these phenotypes are rescued by neuronal expression of wild-type VPS24. At the cellular level, neuronal and muscle cells exhibit marked expansion of a ubiquitin-positive lysosomal compartment, as well as accumulation of autophagic intermediates, and these phenotypes are rescued cell-autonomously. Moreover, VPS24 expression in glia suppressed the mutant phenotype in muscle, indicating a cell-nonautonomous function for VPS24 in protective intercellular signaling. Ultrastructural analysis of neurons and muscle indicated marked accumulation of the lysosomal compartment in the vps24 mutant. In the neuronal cell body, this included characteristic lysosomal structures associated with an expansive membrane compartment with a striking tubular network morphology. These findings further define the in vivo roles of VPS24 and the ESCRT pathway in lysosome homeostasis and their potential contributions to neurodegenerative diseases characterized by defective ESCRT or lysosome function.

Brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery

Endocytosis is an essential cellular process required for multiple physiological functions, including communication with the extracellular environment, nutrient uptake, and signaling by the cell surface receptors. In a broad sense, endocytosis is accomplished through either constitutive or ligand-induced invagination of the plasma membrane, which results in the formation of the plasma membrane-retrieved endocytic vesicles, which can either be sent for degradation to the lysosomes or recycled back to the PM. This additional function of endocytosis in membrane retrieval has been adopted by excitable cells, such as neurons, for membrane equilibrium maintenance at synapses. The last two decades were especially productive with respect to the identification of brain-specific functions of the endocytic machinery, which additionally include but not limited to regulation of neuronal differentiation and migration, maintenance of neuron morphology and synaptic plasticity, and prevention of neurotoxic aggregates spreading. In this review, we highlight the current knowledge of brain-specific functions of endocytic machinery with a specific focus on three brain cell types, neuronal progenitor cells, neurons, and glial cells.

Getting a Notch closer to renal dysfunction: activated Notch suppresses expression of the adaptor protein Disabled-2 in tubular epithelial cells

Reactivation of Notch signaling in kidneys of animal models and patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD) has been shown to contribute to epithelial injury and fibrosis development. Here, we investigated the mechanisms of Notch-induced injury in renal epithelial cells. We performed genome-wide transcriptome analysis to identify Notch target genes using an in vitro system of cultured tubular epithelial cells expressing the intracellular domain of Notch1. One of the top downregulated genes was Disabled-2 ( Dab2). With the use of Drosophila nephrocytes as a model system, we found that Dab (the Drosophila homolog of Dab2) knockdown resulted in a significant filtration defect, indicating that loss of Dab2 plays a functional role in kidney disease development. We showed that Dab2 expression in cultured tubular epithelial cells is involved in endocytic regulation and that it also protects cells from TGF-β-induced epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition. In vivo correlation studies indicated its additional role in renal ischemia-induced injury. Together, these data suggest that Dab2 plays a versatile role in the kidney and may impact on acute and CKDs.-Schütte-Nütgen, K., Edeling, M., Mendl, G., Krahn, M. P., Edemir, B., Weide, T., Kremerskothen, J., Michgehl, U., Pavenstädt, H. Getting a Notch closer to renal dysfunction: activated Notch suppresses expression of the adaptor protein Disabled-2 in tubular epithelial cells.

Disabled-2: A modular scaffold protein with multifaceted functions in signaling

Disabled-2 (Dab2) is a multimodular scaffold protein with signaling roles in the domains of cell growth, trafficking, differentiation, and homeostasis. Emerging evidences place Dab2 as a novel modulator of cell-cell interaction; however, its mode of action has remained largely elusive. In this review, we highlight the relevance of Dab2 function in cell signaling and development and provide the most recent and comprehensive analysis of Dab2's action as a mediator of homotypical and heterotypical interactions. Accordingly, Dab-2 controls the extent of platelet aggregation through various motifs within its N-terminus. Dab2 interacts with the cytosolic tail of the integrin receptor blocking inside-out signaling, whereas extracellular Dab2 competes with fibrinogen for integrin αIIb β3 receptor binding and, thus, modulates outside-in signaling. An additional level of regulation results from Dab2's association with cell surface lipids, an event that defines the extent of cell-cell interactions. As a multifaceted regulator, Dab2 acts as a mediator of endocytosis through its association with the [FY]xNPx[YF] motifs of internalized cell surface receptors, phosphoinositides, and clathrin. Other emerging roles of Dab2 include its participation in developmental mechanisms required for tissue formation and in modulation of immune responses. This review highlights the various novel mechanisms by which Dab2 mediates an array of signaling events with vast physiological consequences.

Exocytosis, Endocytosis, and Their Coupling in Excitable Cells

Evoked exocytosis in excitable cells is fast and spatially confined and must be followed by coupled endocytosis to enable sustained exocytosis while maintaining the balance of the vesicle pool and the plasma membrane. Various types of exocytosis and endocytosis exist in these excitable cells, as those has been found from different types of experiments conducted in different cell types. Correlating these diversified types of exocytosis and endocytosis is problematic. By providing an outline of different exocytosis and endocytosis processes and possible coupling mechanisms here, we emphasize that the endocytic pathway may be pre-determined at the time the vesicle chooses to fuse with the plasma membrane in one specific mode. Therefore, understanding the early intermediate stages of vesicle exocytosis may be instrumental in exploring the mechanism of tailing endocytosis.

Active zone proteins are transported via distinct mechanisms regulated by Par-1 kinase

Disruption of synapses underlies a plethora of neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative disease. Presynaptic specialization called the active zone plays a critical role in the communication with postsynaptic neuron. While the role of many proteins at the active zones in synaptic communication is relatively well studied, very little is known about how these proteins are transported to the synapses. For example, are there distinct mechanisms for the transport of active zone components or are they all transported in the same transport vesicle? Is active zone protein transport regulated? In this report we show that overexpression of Par-1/MARK kinase, a protein whose misregulation has been implicated in Autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) and neurodegenerative disorders, lead to a specific block in the transport of an active zone protein component- Bruchpilot at Drosophila neuromuscular junctions. Consistent with a block in axonal transport, we find a decrease in number of active zones and reduced neurotransmission in flies overexpressing Par-1 kinase. Interestingly, we find that Par-1 acts independently of Tau-one of the most well studied substrates of Par-1, revealing a presynaptic function for Par-1 that is independent of Tau. Thus, our study strongly suggests that there are distinct mechanisms that transport components of active zones and that they are tightly regulated.

Synapses consist of pre- and postsynaptic partners. Proper function of active zones, a presynaptic component of synapse, is essential for efficacious neuronal communication. Disruption of neuronal communication is an early sign of both neurodevelopmental as well as neurodegenerative diseases. Since proteins that reside in active zones are used so frequently during the neuronal communication, they must be constantly replenished to maintain active zones. Axonal transport of these proteins plays an important role in replenishing these vital components necessary for the health of active zones. However, the mechanisms that transport components of active zones are not well understood. Our data suggest that there are distinct mechanisms that transport various active zone cargoes and this process is likely regulated by kinases. Further, our data show that disruption in the transport of one such active zone components causes reduced neuronal communication emphasizing the importance of the process of axonal transport of active zone protein(s) for neuronal communication. Understanding the processes that govern the axonal transport of active zone components will help dissect the initial stages of pathogenesis in both neurodevelopmental and neurodegenerative diseases.

Small heat shock proteins mediate cell-autonomous and -nonautonomous protection in a Drosophila model for environmental-stress-induced degeneration

Cell and tissue degeneration, and the development of degenerative diseases, are influenced by genetic and environmental factors that affect protein misfolding and proteotoxicity. To better understand the role of the environment in degeneration, we developed a genetic model for heat shock (HS)-stress-induced degeneration in Drosophila. This model exhibits a unique combination of features that enhance genetic analysis of degeneration and protection mechanisms involving environmental stress. These include cell-type-specific failure of proteostasis and degeneration in response to global stress, cell-nonautonomous interactions within a simple and accessible network of susceptible cell types, and precise temporal control over the induction of degeneration. In wild-type flies, HS stress causes selective loss of the flight ability and degeneration of three susceptible cell types comprising the flight motor: muscle, motor neurons and associated glia. Other motor behaviors persist and, accordingly, the corresponding cell types controlling leg motor function are resistant to degeneration. Flight motor degeneration was preceded by a failure of muscle proteostasis characterized by diffuse ubiquitinated protein aggregates. Moreover, muscle-specific overexpression of a small heat shock protein (HSP), HSP23, promoted proteostasis and protected muscle from HS stress. Notably, neurons and glia were protected as well, indicating that a small HSP can mediate cell-nonautonomous protection. Cell-autonomous protection of muscle was characterized by a distinct distribution of ubiquitinated proteins, including perinuclear localization and clearance of protein aggregates associated with the perinuclear microtubule network. This network was severely disrupted in wild-type preparations prior to degeneration, suggesting that it serves an important role in muscle proteostasis and protection. Finally, studies of resistant leg muscles revealed that they sustain proteostasis and the microtubule cytoskeleton after HS stress. These findings establish a model for genetic analysis of degeneration and protection mechanisms involving contributions of environmental factors, and advance our understanding of the protective functions and therapeutic potential of small HSPs.

Summary: A Drosophila model for environmental-stress-induced degeneration exhibits key features for genetic analysis of degenerative disease mechanisms and reveals new forms of protection mediated by small heat shock proteins.

Tissue-specific dynamin-1 deletion at the calyx of Held decreases short-term depression through a mechanism distinct from vesicle resupply

Dynamin is a large GTPase with a crucial role in synaptic vesicle regeneration. Acute dynamin inhibition impairs neurotransmitter release, in agreement with the protein's established role in vesicle resupply. Here, using tissue-specific dynamin-1 knockout [conditional knockout (cKO)] mice at a fast central synapse that releases neurotransmitter at high rates, we report that dynamin-1 deletion unexpectedly leads to enhanced steady-state neurotransmission and consequently less synaptic depression during brief periods of high-frequency stimulation. These changes are also accompanied by increased transmission failures. Interestingly, synaptic vesicle resupply and several other synaptic properties remain intact, including basal neurotransmission, presynaptic Ca(2+) influx, initial release probability, and postsynaptic receptor saturation and desensitization. However, acute application of Latrunculin B, a reagent known to induce actin depolymerization and impair bulk and ultrafast endocytosis, has a stronger effect on steady-state depression in cKO than in control and brings the depression down to a control level. The slow phase of presynaptic capacitance decay following strong stimulation is impaired in cKO; the rapid capacitance changes immediately after strong depolarization are also different between control and cKO and sensitive to Latrunculin B. These data raise the possibility that, in addition to its established function in regenerating synaptic vesicles, the endocytosis protein dynamin-1 may have an impact on short-term synaptic depression. This role comes into play primarily during brief high-frequency stimulation.

Diacylglycerol Guides the Hopping of Clathrin-Coated Pits along Microtubules for Exo-Endocytosis Coupling

Many receptor-mediated endocytic processes are mediated by constitutive budding of clathrin-coated pits (CCPs) at spatially randomized sites before slowly pinching off from the plasma membrane (60-100 s). In contrast, clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) coupled with regulated exocytosis in excitable cells occurs at peri-exocytic sites shortly after vesicle fusion (∼10 s). The molecular mechanism underlying this spatiotemporal coupling remains elusive. We show that coupled endocytosis makes use of pre-formed CCPs, which hop to nascent fusion sites nearby following vesicle exocytosis. A dynamic cortical microtubular network, anchored at the cell surface by the cytoplasmic linker-associated protein on microtubules and the LL5β/ELKS complex on the plasma membrane, provides the track for CCP hopping. Local diacylglycerol gradients generated upon exocytosis guide the direction of hopping. Overall, the CCP-cytoskeleton-lipid interaction demonstrated here mediates exocytosis-coupled fast recycling of both plasma membrane and vesicular proteins, and it is required for the sustained exocytosis during repetitive stimulations.

Aging Drosophila melanogaster display altered pre- and postsynaptic ultrastructure at adult neuromuscular junctions

Although age-related changes in synaptic plasticity are an important focus within neuroscience, little is known about ultrastructural changes of synaptic morphology during aging. Here we report how aging affects synaptic ultrastructure by using fluorescence and electron microscopy at the adult Drosophila neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of ventral abdominal muscles. Mainly four striking morphological changes of aging NMJs were revealed. 1) Bouton size increases with proportionally rising number of active zones (AZs). 2) Synaptic vesicle density at AZs is increased in old flies. 3) Late endosomes, cisternae, and multivesicular bodies accumulate in the presynaptic terminal, and vesicles accumulate between membranes of the terminal bouton and the subsynaptic reticulum. 4) The electron-dense pre- and postsynaptic apposition is expanded in aging NMJs, which is accompanied by an expansion of the postsynaptic glutamate receptor fields. These findings suggest that aging is possibly accompanied by impaired synaptic vesicle release and recycling and a potentially compensatory expansion of AZs and postsynaptic densities.

A Distinct Perisynaptic Glial Cell Type Forms Tripartite Neuromuscular Synapses in the Drosophila Adult

Previous studies of Drosophila flight muscle neuromuscular synapses have revealed their tripartite architecture and established an attractive experimental model for genetic analysis of glial function in synaptic transmission. Here we extend these findings by defining a new Drosophila glial cell type, designated peripheral perisynaptic glia (PPG), which resides in the periphery and interacts specifically with fine motor axon branches forming neuromuscular synapses. Identification and specific labeling of PPG was achieved through cell type-specific RNAi-mediated knockdown (KD) of a glial marker, Glutamine Synthetase 2 (GS2). In addition, comparison among different Drosophila neuromuscular synapse models from adult and larval developmental stages indicated the presence of tripartite synapses on several different muscle types in the adult. In contrast, PPG appear to be absent from larval body wall neuromuscular synapses, which do not exhibit a tripartite architecture but rather are imbedded in the muscle plasma membrane. Evolutionary conservation of tripartite synapse architecture and peripheral perisynaptic glia in vertebrates and Drosophila suggests ancient and conserved roles for glia-synapse interactions in synaptic transmission.

Adapting for endocytosis: roles for endocytic sorting adaptors in directing neural development

Proper cortical development depends on the orchestrated actions of a multitude of guidance receptors and adhesion molecules and their downstream signaling. The levels of these receptors on the surface and their precise locations can greatly affect guidance outcomes. Trafficking of receptors to a particular surface locale and removal by endocytosis thus feed crucially into the final guidance outcomes. In addition, endocytosis of receptors can affect downstream signaling (both quantitatively and qualitatively) and regulated endocytosis of guidance receptors is thus an important component of ensuring proper neural development. We will discuss the cell biology of regulated endocytosis and the impact on neural development. We focus our discussion on endocytic accessory proteins (EAPs) (such as numb and disabled) and how they regulate endocytosis and subsequent post-endocytic trafficking of their cognate receptors (such as Notch, TrkB, β-APP, VLDLR, and ApoER2).

Rab8, POSH, and TAK1 regulate synaptic growth in a Drosophila model of frontotemporal dementia

Mutations in genes essential for protein homeostasis have been identified in frontotemporal dementia (FTD) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) patients. Why mature neurons should be particularly sensitive to such perturbations is unclear. We identified mutations in Rab8 in a genetic screen for enhancement of an FTD phenotype associated with ESCRT-III dysfunction. Examination of Rab8 mutants or motor neurons expressing a mutant ESCRT-III subunit, CHMP2B(Intron5), at the Drosophila melanogaster neuromuscular junction synapse revealed synaptic overgrowth and endosomal dysfunction. Expression of Rab8 rescued overgrowth phenotypes generated by CHMP2B(Intron5). In Rab8 mutant synapses, c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)/activator protein-1 and TGF-β signaling were overactivated and acted synergistically to potentiate synaptic growth. We identify novel roles for endosomal JNK-scaffold POSH (Plenty-of-SH3s) and a JNK kinase kinase, TAK1, in regulating growth activation in Rab8 mutants. Our data uncover Rab8, POSH, and TAK1 as regulators of synaptic growth responses and point to recycling endosome as a key compartment for synaptic growth regulation during neurodegenerative processes.

Exocytosis and endocytosis: modes, functions, and coupling mechanisms

Vesicle exocytosis releases content to mediate many biological events, including synaptic transmission essential for brain functions. Following exocytosis, endocytosis is initiated to retrieve exocytosed vesicles within seconds to minutes. Decades of studies in secretory cells reveal three exocytosis modes coupled to three endocytosis modes: (a) full-collapse fusion, in which vesicles collapse into the plasma membrane, followed by classical endocytosis involving membrane invagination and vesicle reformation; (b) kiss-and-run, in which the fusion pore opens and closes; and (c) compound exocytosis, which involves exocytosis of giant vesicles formed via vesicle-vesicle fusion, followed by bulk endocytosis that retrieves giant vesicles. Here we review these exo- and endocytosis modes and their roles in regulating quantal size and synaptic strength, generating synaptic plasticity, maintaining exocytosis, and clearing release sites for vesicle replenishment. Furthermore, we highlight recent progress in understanding how vesicle endocytosis is initiated and is thus coupled to exocytosis. The emerging model is that calcium influx via voltage-dependent calcium channels at the calcium microdomain triggers endocytosis and controls endocytosis rate; calmodulin and synaptotagmin are the calcium sensors; and the exocytosis machinery, including SNARE proteins (synaptobrevin, SNAP25, and syntaxin), is needed to coinitiate endocytosis, likely to control the amount of endocytosis.

Molecular mechanisms of COMPLEXIN fusion clamp function in synaptic exocytosis revealed in a new Drosophila mutant

The COMPLEXIN (CPX) proteins play a critical role in synaptic vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release. Previous studies demonstrated that CPX functions in both activation of evoked neurotransmitter release and inhibition/clamping of spontaneous synaptic vesicle fusion. Here we report a new cpx mutant in Drosophila melanogaster, cpx(1257), revealing spatially defined and separable pools of CPX which make distinct contributions to the activation and clamping functions. In cpx(1257), lack of only the last C-terminal amino acid of CPX is predicted to disrupt prenylation and membrane targeting of CPX. Immunocytochemical analysis established localization of wild-type CPX to active zone (AZ) regions containing neurotransmitter release sites as well as broader presynaptic membrane compartments including synaptic vesicles. Parallel biochemical studies confirmed CPX membrane association and demonstrated robust binding interactions of CPX with all three SNAREs. This is in contrast to the cpx(1257) mutant, in which AZ localization of CPX persists but general membrane localization and, surprisingly, the bulk of CPX-SNARE protein interactions are abolished. Furthermore, electrophysiological analysis of neuromuscular synapses revealed interesting differences between cpx(1257) and a cpx null mutant. The cpx null exhibited a marked decrease in the EPSC amplitude, slowed EPSC rise and decay times and an increased mEPSC frequency with respect to wild-type. In contrast, cpx(1257) exhibited a wild-type EPSC with an increased mEPSC frequency and thus a selective failure to clamp spontaneous release. These results indicate that spatially distinct and separable interactions of CPX with presynaptic membranes and SNARE proteins mediate separable activation and clamping functions of CPX in neurotransmitter release.

Bond orientational order in liquids: Towards a unified description of water-like anomalies, liquid-liquid transition, glass transition, and crystallization: Bond orientational order in liquids

There are at least three fundamental states of matter, depending upon temperature and pressure: gas, liquid, and solid (crystal). These states are separated by first-order phase transitions between them. In both gas and liquid phases a complete translational and rotational symmetry exist, whereas in a solid phase both symmetries are broken. In intermediate phases between liquid and solid, which include liquid crystal and plastic crystal phases, only one of the two symmetries is preserved. Among the fundamental states of matter, the liquid state is the most poorly understood. We argue that it is crucial for a better understanding of liquids to recognize that a liquid generally has the tendency to have a local structural order and its presence is intrinsic and universal to any liquid. Such structural ordering is a consequence of many-body correlations, more specifically, bond angle correlations, which we believe are crucial for the description of the liquid state. We show that this physical picture may naturally explain difficult unsolved problems associated with the liquid state, such as anomalies of water-type liquids (water, Si, Ge, ...), liquid-liquid transition, liquid-glass transition, crystallization and quasicrystal formation, in a unified manner. In other words, we need a new order parameter representing a low local free-energy configuration, which is a bond orientational order parameter in many cases, in addition to a density order parameter for the physical description of these phenomena. Here we review our two-order-parameter model of liquid and consider how transient local structural ordering is linked to all of the above-mentioned phenomena. The relationship between these phenomena is also discussed.

Identification of genetic modifiers of CagA-induced epithelial disruption in Drosophila

Helicobacter pylori strains containing the CagA protein are associated with high risk of gastric diseases including atrophic gastritis, peptic ulcers, and gastric cancer. CagA is injected into host cells via a Type IV secretion system where it activates growth factor-like signaling, disrupts cell-cell junctions, and perturbs host cell polarity. Using a transgenic Drosophila model, we have shown that CagA expression disrupts the morphogenesis of epithelial tissues such as the adult eye. Here we describe a genetic screen to identify modifiers of CagA-induced eye defects. We determined that reducing the copy number of genes encoding components of signaling pathways known to be targeted by CagA, such as the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR), modified the CagA-induced eye phenotypes. In our screen of just over half the Drosophila genome, we discovered 12 genes that either suppressed or enhanced CagA's disruption of the eye epithelium. Included in this list are genes involved in epithelial integrity, intracellular trafficking, and signal transduction. We investigated the mechanism of one suppressor, encoding the epithelial polarity determinant and junction protein Coracle, which is homologous to the mammalian Protein 4.1. We found that loss of a single copy of coracle improved the organization and integrity of larval retinal epithelia expressing CagA, but did not alter CagA's localization to cell junctions. Loss of a single copy of the coracle antagonist crumbs enhanced CagA-associated disruption of the larval retinal epithelium, whereas overexpression of crumbs suppressed this phenotype. Collectively, these results point to new cellular pathways whose disruption by CagA are likely to contribute to H. pylori-associated disease pathology.

A genetic analysis of the stinging and guarding behaviors of the honey bee

In order to identify genes that are influencing defensive behaviors, we have taken a new approach by dissecting colony-level defensive behavior into individual behavioral measurements using two families containing backcross workers from matings involving European and Africanized bees. We removed the social context from stinging behavior by using a laboratory assay to measure the stinging response of individual bees. A mild shock was given to bees using a constant-current stimulator. The time it took bees to sting in response to this stimulus was recorded. In addition, bees that were seen performing guard behaviors at the hive entrance were collected. We performed QTL mapping in two backcross families with SNP probes within genes and identified two new QTL regions for stinging behavior and another QTL region for guarding behavior. We also identified several candidate genes involved in neural signaling, neural development and muscle development that may be influencing stinging and guarding behaviors. The lack of overlap between these regions and previous defensive behavior QTL underscores the complexity of this behavior and increases our understanding of its genetic architecture.

Reduced release probability prevents vesicle depletion and transmission failure at dynamin mutant synapses

Endocytic recycling of synaptic vesicles after exocytosis is critical for nervous system function. At synapses of cultured neurons that lack the two "neuronal" dynamins, dynamin 1 and 3, smaller excitatory postsynaptic currents are observed due to an impairment of the fission reaction of endocytosis that results in an accumulation of arrested clathrin-coated pits and a greatly reduced synaptic vesicle number. Surprisingly, despite a smaller readily releasable vesicle pool and fewer docked vesicles, a strong facilitation, which correlated with lower vesicle release probability, was observed upon action potential stimulation at such synapses. Furthermore, although network activity in mutant cultures was lower, Ca(2+)/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) activity was unexpectedly increased, consistent with the previous report of an enhanced state of synapsin 1 phosphorylation at CaMKII-dependent sites in such neurons. These changes were partially reversed by overnight silencing of synaptic activity with tetrodotoxin, a treatment that allows progression of arrested endocytic pits to synaptic vesicles. Facilitation was also counteracted by CaMKII inhibition. These findings reveal a mechanism aimed at preventing synaptic transmission failure due to vesicle depletion when recycling vesicle traffic is backed up by a defect in dynamin-dependent endocytosis and provide new insight into the coupling between endocytosis and exocytosis.

Genetic analysis in Drosophila reveals a role for the mitochondrial protein p32 in synaptic transmission

Mitochondria located within neuronal presynaptic terminals have been shown to play important roles in the release of chemical neurotransmitters. In the present study, a genetic screen for synaptic transmission mutants of Drosophila has identified the first mutation in a Drosophila homolog of the mitochondrial protein P32. Although P32 is highly conserved and has been studied extensively, its physiological role in mitochondria remains unknown and it has not previously been implicated in neural function. The Drosophila P32 mutant, referred to as dp32^EC1, exhibited a temperature-sensitive (TS) paralytic behavioral phenotype. Moreover, electrophysiological analysis at adult neuromuscular synapses revealed a TS reduction in the amplitude of excitatory postsynaptic currents (EPSC) and indicated that dP32 functions in neurotransmitter release. These studies are the first to address P32 function in Drosophila and expand our knowledge of mitochondrial proteins contributing to synaptic transmission.