1
|
Fukushima M, Toyonaga T, O. Tahara Y, Nakane D, Miyata M. Internal structure of Mycoplasma mobile gliding machinery analyzed by negative staining electron tomography. Biophys Physicobiol 2024; 21:e210015. [PMID: 39206130 PMCID: PMC11347822 DOI: 10.2142/biophysico.bppb-v21.0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile is a parasitic bacterium that forms gliding machinery on the cell pole and glides on a solid surface in the direction of the cell pole. The gliding machinery consists of both internal and surface structures. The internal structure is divided into a bell at the front and chain structure extending from the bell. In this study, the internal structures prepared under several conditions were analyzed using negative-staining electron microscopy and electron tomography. The chains were constructed by linked motors containing two complexes similar to ATP synthase. A cylindrical spacer with a maximum diameter of 6 nm and a height of 13 nm, and anonymous linkers with a diameter of 0.9-8.3 nm and length of 14.7±6.9 nm were found between motors. The bell is bowl-shaped and features a honeycomb surface with a periodicity of 8.4 nm. The chains of the motor are connected to the rim of the bell through a wedge-shaped structure. These structures may play roles in the assembly and cooperation of gliding machinery units.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Minoru Fukushima
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Takuma Toyonaga
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
- The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Yuhei O. Tahara
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | - Daisuke Nakane
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, The University of Electro-Communications, Chofu, Tokyo 182-8585, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
- The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka Metropolitan University, Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Nakane D. Rheotaxis in Mycoplasma gliding. Microbiol Immunol 2023; 67:389-395. [PMID: 37430383 DOI: 10.1111/1348-0421.13090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2023] [Revised: 06/22/2023] [Accepted: 06/23/2023] [Indexed: 07/12/2023]
Abstract
This review describes the upstream-directed movement in the small parasitic bacterium Mycoplasma. Many Mycoplasma species exhibit gliding motility, a form of biological motion over surfaces without the aid of general surface appendages such as flagella. The gliding motility is characterized by a constant unidirectional movement without changes in direction or backward motion. Unlike flagellated bacteria, Mycoplasma lacks the general chemotactic signaling system to control their moving direction. Therefore, the physiological role of directionless travel in Mycoplasma gliding remains unclear. Recently, high-precision measurements under an optical microscope have revealed that three species of Mycoplasma exhibited rheotaxis, that is, the direction of gliding motility is lead upstream by the water flow. This intriguing response appears to be optimized for the flow patterns encountered at host surfaces. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the morphology, behavior, and habitat of Mycoplasma gliding, and discusses the possibility that the rheotaxis is ubiquitous among them.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Nakane
- Department of Engineering Science, Graduate School of Informatics and Engineering, Tokyo, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Detection of Steps and Rotation in the Gliding Motility of Mycoplasma mobile. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2646:327-336. [PMID: 36842127 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3060-0_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile is one of the fastest gliding bacteria, gliding with a speed of 4.5 μm s-1. This gliding motility is driven by a concerted movement of 450 supramolecular motor units composed of three proteins, Gli123, Gli349, and Gli521, in the gliding motility machinery. With general experimental setups, it is difficult to obtain the information on how each motor unit works. This chapter describes strategies to decrease the number of active motor units to extract stepwise cell movements driven by a minimum number of motor units. We also describe an unforeseen motility mode in which the leg motions convert the gliding motion into rotary motion, which enables us to characterize the motor torque and energy-conversion efficiency by adding some more assumptions.
Collapse
|
4
|
Mizutani M, Sasajima Y, Miyata M. Force and Stepwise Movements of Gliding Motility in Human Pathogenic Bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:747905. [PMID: 34630372 PMCID: PMC8498583 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.747905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Accepted: 08/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a human pathogenic bacterium, binds to sialylated oligosaccharides and glides on host cell surfaces via a unique mechanism. Gliding motility is essential for initiating the infectious process. In the present study, we measured the stall force of an M. pneumoniae cell carrying a bead that was manipulated using optical tweezers on two strains. The stall forces of M129 and FH strains were averaged to be 23.7 and 19.7 pN, respectively, much weaker than those of other bacterial surface motilities. The binding activity and gliding speed of the M129 strain on sialylated oligosaccharides were eight and two times higher than those of the FH strain, respectively, showing that binding activity is not linked to gliding force. Gliding speed decreased when cell binding was reduced by addition of free sialylated oligosaccharides, indicating the existence of a drag force during gliding. We detected stepwise movements, likely caused by a single leg under 0.2-0.3 mM free sialylated oligosaccharides. A step size of 14-19 nm showed that 25-35 propulsion steps per second are required to achieve the usual gliding speed. The step size was reduced to less than half with the load applied using optical tweezers, showing that a 2.5 pN force from a cell is exerted on a leg. The work performed in this step was 16-30% of the free energy of the hydrolysis of ATP molecules, suggesting that this step is linked to the elementary process of M. pneumoniae gliding. We discuss a model to explain the gliding mechanism, based on the information currently available.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Mizutani
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yuya Sasajima
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan.,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Sasajima Y, Miyata M. Prospects for the Mechanism of Spiroplasma Swimming. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:706426. [PMID: 34512583 PMCID: PMC8432965 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.706426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 07/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Spiroplasma are helical bacteria that lack a peptidoglycan layer. They are widespread globally as parasites of arthropods and plants. Their infectious processes and survival are most likely supported by their unique swimming system, which is unrelated to well-known bacterial motility systems such as flagella and pili. Spiroplasma swims by switching the left- and right-handed helical cell body alternately from the cell front. The kinks generated by the helicity shift travel down along the cell axis and rotate the cell body posterior to the kink position like a screw, pushing the water backward and propelling the cell body forward. An internal structure called the "ribbon" has been focused to elucidate the mechanisms for the cell helicity formation and swimming. The ribbon is composed of Spiroplasma-specific fibril protein and a bacterial actin, MreB. Here, we propose a model for helicity-switching swimming focusing on the ribbon, in which MreBs generate a force like a bimetallic strip based on ATP energy and switch the handedness of helical fibril filaments. Cooperative changes of these filaments cause helicity to shift down the cell axis. Interestingly, unlike other motility systems, the fibril protein and Spiroplasma MreBs can be traced back to their ancestors. The fibril protein has evolved from methylthioadenosine/S-adenosylhomocysteine (MTA/SAH) nucleosidase, which is essential for growth, and MreBs, which function as a scaffold for peptidoglycan synthesis in walled bacteria.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuya Sasajima
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
- The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile, a fish pathogen, exhibits gliding motility using ATP hydrolysis on solid surfaces, including animal cells. The gliding machinery can be divided into surface and internal structures. The internal structure of the motor is composed of 28 so-called “chains” that are each composed of 17 repeating protein units called “particles.” These proteins include homologs of the catalytic α and β subunits of F1-ATPase. In this study, we isolated the particles and determined their structures using negative-staining electron microscopy and high-speed atomic force microscopy. The isolated particles were composed of five proteins, MMOB1660 (α-subunit homolog), -1670 (β-subunit homolog), -1630, -1620, and -4530, and showed ATP hydrolyzing activity. The two-dimensional (2D) structure, with dimensions of 35 and 26 nm, showed a dimer of hexameric ring approximately 12 nm in diameter, resembling F1-ATPase catalytic (αβ)3. We isolated the F1-like ATPase unit, which is composed of MMOB1660, -1670, and -1630. Furthermore, we isolated the chain and analyzed the three-dimensional (3D) structure, showing that dimers of mushroom-like structures resembling F1-ATPase were connected and aligned along the dimer axis at 31-nm intervals. An atomic model of F1-ATPase catalytic (αβ)3 from Bacillus PS3 was successfully fitted to each hexameric ring of the mushroom-like structure. These results suggest that the motor for M. mobile gliding shares an evolutionary origin with F1-ATPase. Based on the obtained structure, we propose possible force transmission processes in the gliding mechanism.
Collapse
|
7
|
Molecular ruler of the attachment organelle in Mycoplasma pneumoniae. PLoS Pathog 2021; 17:e1009621. [PMID: 34111235 PMCID: PMC8191905 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1009621] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 05/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Length control is a fundamental requirement for molecular architecture. Even small wall-less bacteria have specially developed macro-molecular structures to support their survival. Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a human pathogen, forms a polar extension called an attachment organelle, which mediates cell division, cytadherence, and cell movement at host cell surface. This characteristic ultrastructure has a constant size of 250–300 nm, but its design principle remains unclear. In this study, we constructed several mutants by genetic manipulation to increase or decrease coiled-coil regions of HMW2, a major component protein of 200 kDa aligned in parallel along the cell axis. HMW2-engineered mutants produced both long and short attachment organelles, which we quantified by transmission electron microscopy and fluorescent microscopy with nano-meter precision. This simple design of HMW2 acting as a molecular ruler for the attachment organelle should provide an insight into bacterial cellular organization and its function for their parasitic lifestyles. Mycoplasma pneumoniae, a pathogen of “walking pneumonia”, have a membrane protrusion with a precise length of 250–300 nm specially developed to support their parasitic lifestyles. To date, however, there has been no report focusing on the potential length-control mechanisms of this characteristic architecture called an attachment organelle. Here, we found that the coiled-coil domains of the 200-kDa protein HMW2 are aligned in parallel along the cell axis, and acts as a molecular ruler by the assembly into a physical scaffold. The molecular ruler could be engineered by genetic modification to produce both longer and shorter attachment organelle. The analyses of the length-controlled mutant highlight a simple design principle of cellular organization in a small bacterium.
Collapse
|
8
|
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile, a parasitic bacterium, glides on solid surfaces, such as animal cells and glass, by a special mechanism. This process is driven by the force generated through ATP hydrolysis on an internal structure. However, the spatial and temporal behaviors of the internal structures in living cells are unclear. In this study, we detected the movements of the internal structure by scanning cells immobilized on a glass substrate using high-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM). By scanning the surface of a cell, we succeeded in visualizing particles, 2 nm in height and aligned mostly along the cell axis with a pitch of 31.5 nm, consistent with previously reported features based on electron microscopy. Movements of individual particles were then analyzed by HS-AFM. In the presence of sodium azide, the average speed of particle movements was reduced, suggesting that movement is linked to ATP hydrolysis. Partial inhibition of the reaction by sodium azide enabled us to analyze particle behavior in detail, showing that the particles move 9 nm right, relative to the gliding direction, and 2 nm into the cell interior in 330 ms and then return to their original position, based on ATP hydrolysis.
Collapse
|
9
|
Motile ghosts of the halophilic archaeon, Haloferax volcanii. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:26766-26772. [PMID: 33051299 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2009814117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Archaea swim using the archaellum (archaeal flagellum), a reversible rotary motor consisting of a torque-generating motor and a helical filament, which acts as a propeller. Unlike the bacterial flagellar motor (BFM), ATP (adenosine-5'-triphosphate) hydrolysis probably drives both motor rotation and filamentous assembly in the archaellum. However, direct evidence is still lacking due to the lack of a versatile model system. Here, we present a membrane-permeabilized ghost system that enables the manipulation of intracellular contents, analogous to the triton model in eukaryotic flagella and gliding Mycoplasma We observed high nucleotide selectivity for ATP driving motor rotation, negative cooperativity in ATP hydrolysis, and the energetic requirement for at least 12 ATP molecules to be hydrolyzed per revolution of the motor. The response regulator CheY increased motor switching from counterclockwise (CCW) to clockwise (CW) rotation. Finally, we constructed the torque-speed curve at various [ATP]s and discuss rotary models in which the archaellum has characteristics of both the BFM and F1-ATPase. Because archaea share similar cell division and chemotaxis machinery with other domains of life, our ghost model will be an important tool for the exploration of the universality, diversity, and evolution of biomolecular machinery.
Collapse
|
10
|
Kinosita Y, Ishida T, Yoshida M, Ito R, Morimoto YV, Goto K, Berry RM, Nishizaka T, Sowa Y. Distinct chemotactic behavior in the original Escherichia coli K-12 depending on forward-and-backward swimming, not on run-tumble movements. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15887. [PMID: 32985511 PMCID: PMC7522084 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72429-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Most motile bacteria are propelled by rigid, helical, flagellar filaments and display distinct swimming patterns to explore their favorable environments. Escherichia coli cells have a reversible rotary motor at the base of each filament. They exhibit a run-tumble swimming pattern, driven by switching of the rotational direction, which causes polymorphic flagellar transformation. Here we report a novel swimming mode in E. coli ATCC10798, which is one of the original K-12 clones. High-speed tracking of single ATCC10798 cells showed forward and backward swimming with an average turning angle of 150°. The flagellar helicity remained right-handed with a 1.3 μm pitch and 0.14 μm helix radius, which is consistent with the feature of a curly type, regardless of motor switching; the flagella of ATCC10798 did not show polymorphic transformation. The torque and rotational switching of the motor was almost identical to the E. coli W3110 strain, which is a derivative of K-12 and a wild-type for chemotaxis. The single point mutation of N87K in FliC, one of the filament subunits, is critical to the change in flagellar morphology and swimming pattern, and lack of flagellar polymorphism. E. coli cells expressing FliC(N87K) sensed ascending a chemotactic gradient in liquid but did not spread on a semi-solid surface. Based on these results, we concluded that a flagellar polymorphism is essential for spreading in structured environments.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Kinosita
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan.
- Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Park load, Oxford, OX1 3PU, UK.
- Molecular Physiology Laboratory, RIKEN, Wako, Japan.
| | - Tsubasa Ishida
- Department of Frontier Bioscience and Research Center for Micro-Nano Technology, Hosei University, Tokyo, 184-8584, Japan
| | - Myu Yoshida
- Department of Frontier Bioscience and Research Center for Micro-Nano Technology, Hosei University, Tokyo, 184-8584, Japan
| | - Rie Ito
- Department of Frontier Bioscience and Research Center for Micro-Nano Technology, Hosei University, Tokyo, 184-8584, Japan
| | - Yusuke V Morimoto
- Department of Physics and Information Technology, Faculty of Computer Science and Systems Engineering, Kyushu Institute of Technology, Iizuka, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Kazuki Goto
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan
| | - Richard M Berry
- Department of Physics, University of Oxford, Park load, Oxford, OX1 3PU, UK
| | - Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Sowa
- Department of Frontier Bioscience and Research Center for Micro-Nano Technology, Hosei University, Tokyo, 184-8584, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Refined Mechanism of Mycoplasma mobile Gliding Based on Structure, ATPase Activity, and Sialic Acid Binding of Machinery. mBio 2019; 10:mBio.02846-19. [PMID: 31874918 PMCID: PMC6935860 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02846-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile, a fish pathogen, glides on solid surfaces by repeated catch, pull, and release of sialylated oligosaccharides by a unique mechanism based on ATP energy. The gliding machinery is composed of huge surface proteins and an internal "jellyfish"-like structure. Here, we elucidated the detailed three-dimensional structures of the machinery by electron cryotomography. The internal "tentacle"-like structure hydrolyzed ATP, which was consistent with the fact that the paralogs of the α- and β-subunits of F1-ATPase are at the tentacle structure. The electron microscopy suggested conformational changes of the tentacle structure depending on the presence of ATP analogs. The gliding machinery was isolated and showed that the binding activity to sialylated oligosaccharide was higher in the presence of ADP than in the presence of ATP. Based on these results, we proposed a model to explain the mechanism of M. mobile gliding.IMPORTANCE The genus Mycoplasma is made up of the smallest parasitic and sometimes commensal bacteria; Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which causes human "walking pneumonia," is representative. More than ten Mycoplasma species glide on host tissues by novel mechanisms, always in the direction of the distal side of the machinery. Mycoplasma mobile, the fastest species in the genus, catches, pulls, and releases sialylated oligosaccharides (SOs), the carbohydrate molecules also targeted by influenza viruses, by means of a specific receptor and using ATP hydrolysis for energy. Here, the architecture of the gliding machinery was visualized three dimensionally by electron cryotomography (ECT), and changes in the structure and binding activity coupled to ATP hydrolysis were discovered. Based on the results, a refined mechanism was proposed for this unique motility.
Collapse
|
12
|
Hamaguchi T, Kawakami M, Furukawa H, Miyata M. Identification of novel protein domain for sialyloligosaccharide binding essential to Mycoplasma mobile gliding. FEMS Microbiol Lett 2019; 366:5298403. [PMID: 30668689 PMCID: PMC6376172 DOI: 10.1093/femsle/fnz016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 01/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Sialic acids, terminal structures of sialylated glycoconjugates, are widely distributed in animal tissues and are often involved in intercellular recognitions, including some bacteria and viruses. Mycoplasma mobile, a fish pathogenic bacterium, binds to sialyloligosaccharide (SO) through adhesin Gli349 and glides on host cell surfaces. The amino acid sequence of Gli349 shows no similarity to known SO-binding proteins. In the present study, we predicted the binding part of Gli349, produced it in Escherichia coli and proved its binding activity to SOs of fetuin using atomic force microscopy. Binding was detected with a frequency of 10.3% under retraction speed of 400 nm/s and was shown to be specific for SO, as binding events were competitively inhibited by the addition of free 3'-sialyllactose. The histogram of the unbinding forces showed 24 pN and additional peaks. These results suggested that the distal end of Gli349 constitutes a novel sialoadhesin domain and is directly involved in the gliding mechanism of M. mobile.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Tasuku Hamaguchi
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan.,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan
| | - Masaru Kawakami
- Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamagata University, Yonezawa, 992-8510, Japan
| | - Hidemitsu Furukawa
- Department of Mechanical Systems Engineering, Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Yamagata University, Yonezawa, 992-8510, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan.,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology (OCARINA), Osaka City University, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Behaviors and Energy Source of Mycoplasma gallisepticum Gliding. J Bacteriol 2019; 201:JB.00397-19. [PMID: 31308069 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00397-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 01/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma gallisepticum, an avian-pathogenic bacterium, glides on host tissue surfaces by using a common motility system with Mycoplasma pneumoniae In the present study, we observed and analyzed the gliding behaviors of M. gallisepticum in detail by using optical microscopes. M. gallisepticum glided at a speed of 0.27 ± 0.09 μm/s with directional changes relative to the cell axis of 0.6 degree ± 44.6 degrees/5 s without the rolling of the cell body. To examine the effects of viscosity on gliding, we analyzed the gliding behaviors under viscous environments. The gliding speed was constant in various concentrations of methylcellulose but was affected by Ficoll. To investigate the relationship between binding and gliding, we analyzed the inhibitory effects of sialyllactose on binding and gliding. The binding and gliding speed sigmoidally decreased with sialyllactose concentration, indicating the cooperative binding of the cell. To determine the direct energy source of gliding, we used a membrane-permeabilized ghost model. We permeabilized M. gallisepticum cells with Triton X-100 or Triton X-100 containing ATP and analyzed the gliding of permeabilized cells. The cells permeabilized with Triton X-100 did not show gliding; in contrast, the cells permeabilized with Triton X-100 containing ATP showed gliding at a speed of 0.014 ± 0.007 μm/s. These results indicate that the direct energy source for the gliding motility of M. gallisepticum is ATP.IMPORTANCE Mycoplasmas, the smallest bacteria, are parasitic and occasionally commensal. Mycoplasma gallisepticum is related to human-pathogenic mycoplasmas-Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Mycoplasma genitalium-which cause so-called "walking pneumonia" and nongonococcal urethritis, respectively. These mycoplasmas trap sialylated oligosaccharides, which are common targets among influenza viruses, on host trachea or urinary tract surfaces and glide to enlarge the infected areas. Interestingly, this gliding motility is not related to other bacterial motilities or eukaryotic motilities. Here, we quantitatively analyze cell behaviors in gliding and clarify the direct energy source. The results provide clues for elucidating this unique motility mechanism.
Collapse
|
14
|
Nishizaka T, Masaike T, Nakane D. Insights into the mechanism of ATP-driven rotary motors from direct torque measurement. Biophys Rev 2019; 11:653-657. [PMID: 31321734 DOI: 10.1007/s12551-019-00564-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Motor proteins are molecular machines that convert chemical energy into mechanical work. In addition to existing studies performed on the linear motors found in eukaryotic cells, researchers in biophysics have also focused on rotary motors such as F1-ATPase. Detailed studies on the rotary F1-ATPase motor have correlated all chemical states to specific mechanical events at the single-molecule level. Recent studies showed that there exists another ATP-driven protein motor in life: the rotary machinery that rotates archaeal flagella (archaella). Rotation speed, stepwise movement, and variable directionality of the motor of Halobacterium salinarum were described in previous studies. Here we review recent experimental work discerning the molecular mechanism underlying how the archaellar motor protein FlaI drives rotation by generation of motor torque. In combination, those studies found that rotation slows as the viscous drag of markers increases, but torque remains constant at 160 pN·nm independent of rotation speed. Unexpectedly, the estimated work done in a single rotation is twice the expected energy that would come from hydrolysis of six ATP molecules in the FlaI hexamer. To reconcile the apparent contradiction, a new and general model for the mechanism of ATP-driven rotary motors is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan.
| | - Tomoko Masaike
- Department of Applied Biological Science, Faculty of Science and Technology, Tokyo University of Science, 2641 Yamazaki, Noda City, Chiba, 278-8510, Japan
| | - Daisuke Nakane
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
15
|
Iwata S, Kinosita Y, Uchida N, Nakane D, Nishizaka T. Motor torque measurement of Halobacterium salinarum archaellar suggests a general model for ATP-driven rotary motors. Commun Biol 2019; 2:199. [PMID: 31149643 PMCID: PMC6534597 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-019-0422-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2018] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
It is unknown how the archaellum-the rotary propeller used by Archaea for motility-works. To further understand the molecular mechanism by which the hexameric ATPase motor protein FlaI drives rotation of the membrane-embedded archaellar motor, we determined motor torque by imposition of various loads on Halobacterium salinarum archaella. Markers of different sizes were attached to single archaella, and their trajectories were quantified using three-dimensional tracking and high-speed recording. We show that rotation slows as the viscous drag of markers increases, but torque remains constant at 160 pN·nm independent of rotation speed. Notably, the estimated work done in a single rotation is twice the expected energy that would come from hydrolysis of six ATP molecules in the hexamer, indicating that more ATP molecules are required for one rotation of archaellum. To reconcile the apparent contradiction, we suggest a new and general model for the mechanism of ATP-driven rotary motors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Seiji Iwata
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588 Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kinosita
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588 Japan
| | - Nariya Uchida
- Department of Physics, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578 Japan
| | - Daisuke Nakane
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588 Japan
| | - Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588 Japan
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Kinosita Y, Miyata M, Nishizaka T. Linear motor driven-rotary motion of a membrane-permeabilized ghost in Mycoplasma mobile. Sci Rep 2018; 8:11513. [PMID: 30065251 PMCID: PMC6068192 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-29875-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile exhibits a smooth gliding movement as does its membrane-permeabilized ghost model. Ghost experiments revealed that the energy source for M. mobile motility is adenosine triphosphate (ATP) and that the gliding comprises repetitions of 70 nm steps. Here we show a new motility mode, in which the ghost model prepared with 0.013% Triton X-100 exhibits directed rotational motions with an average speed of approximately 2.1 Hz when ATP concentration is greater than 3.0 × 10−1 mM. We found that rotary ghosts treated with sialyllactose, the binding target for leg proteins, were stopped. Although the origin of the rotation has not been conclusively determined, this result suggested that biomolecules embedded on the cell membrane nonspecifically attach to the glass and work as a fluid pivot point and that the linear motion of the leg is a driving force for the rotary motion. This simple geometry exemplifies the new motility mode, by which the movement of a linear motor is efficiently converted to a constant rotation of the object on a micrometer scale.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Kinosita
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan. .,Institute of Biology II, Freiburg University, Schaenzlestreet 1, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, 3-3-138 Sugimoto, Sumiyoshi-ku, 8, Osaka, 558-8585, Japan.,The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, Osaka, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, 1-5-1 Mejiro, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, 171-8588, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kinosita Y, Nishizaka T. Cross-kymography analysis to simultaneously quantify the function and morphology of the archaellum. Biophys Physicobiol 2018; 15:121-128. [PMID: 29955563 PMCID: PMC6018435 DOI: 10.2142/biophysico.15.0_121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2018] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In many microorganisms helical structures are important for motility, e.g., bacterial flagella and kink propagation in Spiroplasma eriocheiris. Motile archaea also form a helical-shaped filament called the ‘archaellum’ that is functionally equivalent to the bacterial flagellum, but structurally resembles type IV pili. The archaellum motor consists of 6–8 proteins called fla accessory genes, and the filament assembly is driven by ATP hydrolysis at catalytic sites in FlaI. Remarkably, previous research using a dark-field microscopy showed that right-handed filaments propelled archaeal cells forwards or backwards by clockwise or counterclockwise rotation, respectively. However, the shape and rotational rate of the archaellum during swimming remained unclear, due to the low signal and lack of temporal resolution. Additionally, the structure and the motor properties of the archaellum and bacterial flagellum have not been precisely determined during swimming because they move freely in three-dimensional space. Recently, we developed an advanced method called “cross-kymography analysis”, which enables us to be a long-term observation and simultaneously quantify the function and morphology of helical structures using a total internal reflection fluorescence microscope. In this review, we introduce the basic idea of this analysis, and summarize the latest information in structural and functional characterization of the archaellum motor.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoshiaki Kinosita
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Mizutani M, Tulum I, Kinosita Y, Nishizaka T, Miyata M. Detailed Analyses of Stall Force Generation in Mycoplasma mobile Gliding. Biophys J 2018; 114:1411-1419. [PMID: 29590598 PMCID: PMC5883615 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2018.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Revised: 01/24/2018] [Accepted: 01/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile is a bacterium that uses a unique mechanism to glide on solid surfaces at a velocity of up to 4.5 μm/s. Its gliding machinery comprises hundreds of units that generate the force for gliding based on the energy derived from ATP; the units catch and pull sialylated oligosaccharides fixed to solid surfaces. In this study, we measured the stall force of wild-type and mutant strains of M. mobile carrying a bead manipulated using optical tweezers. The strains that had been enhanced for binding exhibited weaker stall forces than the wild-type strain, indicating that stall force is related to force generation rather than to binding. The stall force of the wild-type strain decreased linearly from 113 to 19 picoNewtons after the addition of 0-0.5 mM free sialyllactose (a sialylated oligosaccharide), with a decrease in the number of working units. After the addition of 0.5 mM sialyllactose, the cells carrying a bead loaded using optical tweezers exhibited stepwise movements with force increments. The force increments ranged from 1 to 2 picoNewtons. Considering the 70-nm step size, this small-unit force may be explained by the large gear ratio involved in the M. mobile gliding machinery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Masaki Mizutani
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Isil Tulum
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan; The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan
| | - Yoshiaki Kinosita
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takayuki Nishizaka
- Department of Physics, Faculty of Science, Gakushuin University, Toshima-ku, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan; The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan.
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Unforeseen swimming and gliding mode of an insect gut symbiont, Burkholderia sp. RPE64, with wrapping of the flagella around its cell body. ISME JOURNAL 2017; 12:838-848. [PMID: 29269839 DOI: 10.1038/s41396-017-0010-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2017] [Revised: 10/09/2017] [Accepted: 10/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
A bean bug symbiont, Burkholderia sp. RPE64, selectively colonizes the gut crypts by flagella-mediated motility: however, the mechanism for this colonization remains unclear. Here, to obtain clues to this mechanism, we characterized the swimming motility of the Burkholderia symbiont under an advanced optical microscope. High-speed imaging of cells enabled the detection of turn events with up to 5-ms temporal resolution, indicating that cells showed reversal motions (θ ~ 180°) with rapid changes in speed by a factor of 3.6. Remarkably, staining of the flagellar filaments with a fluorescent dye Cy3 revealed that the flagellar filaments wrap around the cell body with a motion like that of a ribbon streamer in rhythmic gymnastics. A motility assay with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy revealed that the left-handed flagellum wound around the cell body and propelled it forward by its clockwise rotation. We also detected periodic-fluorescent signals of flagella on the glass surface, suggesting that flagella possibly contacted the solid surface directly and produced a gliding-like motion driven by flagellar rotation. Finally, the wrapping motion was also observed in a symbiotic bacterium of the bobtail squid, Aliivibrio fischeri, suggesting that this motility mode may contribute to migration on the mucus-filled narrow passage connecting to the symbiotic organ.
Collapse
|
20
|
Direct observation of rotation and steps of the archaellum in the swimming halophilic archaeon Halobacterium salinarum. Nat Microbiol 2016; 1:16148. [PMID: 27564999 DOI: 10.1038/nmicrobiol.2016.148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 07/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Motile archaea swim using a rotary filament, the archaellum, a surface appendage that resembles bacterial flagella structurally, but is homologous to bacterial type IV pili. Little is known about the mechanism by which archaella produce motility. To gain insights into this mechanism, we characterized archaellar function in the model organism Halobacterium salinarum. Three-dimensional tracking of quantum dots enabled visualization of the left-handed corkscrewing of archaea in detail. An advanced analysis method combined with total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy, termed cross-kymography, was developed and revealed a right-handed helical structure of archaella with a rotation speed of 23 ± 5 Hz. Using these structural and kinetic parameters, we computationally reproduced the swimming and precession motion with a hydrodynamic model and estimated the archaellar motor torque to be 50 pN nm. Finally, in a tethered-cell assay, we observed intermittent pauses during rotation with ∼36° or 60° intervals, which we speculate may be a unitary step consuming a single adenosine triphosphate molecule, which supplies chemical energy of 80 pN nm when hydrolysed. From an estimate of the energy input as ten or six adenosine triphosphates per revolution, the efficiency of the motor is calculated to be ∼6-10%.
Collapse
|
21
|
Directed Binding of Gliding Bacterium, Mycoplasma mobile, Shown by Detachment Force and Bond Lifetime. mBio 2016; 7:mBio.00455-16. [PMID: 27353751 PMCID: PMC4937208 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00455-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile, a fish-pathogenic bacterium, features a protrusion that enables it to glide smoothly on solid surfaces at a velocity of up to 4.5 µm s−1 in the direction of the protrusion. M. mobile glides by a repeated catch-pull-release of sialylated oligosaccharides fixed on a solid surface by hundreds of 50-nm flexible “legs” sticking out from the protrusion. This gliding mechanism may be explained by a possible directed binding of each leg with sialylated oligosaccharides, by which the leg can be detached more easily forward than backward. In the present study, we used a polystyrene bead held by optical tweezers to detach a starved cell at rest from a glass surface coated with sialylated oligosaccharides and concluded that the detachment force forward is 1.6- to 1.8-fold less than that backward, which may be linked to a catch bond-like behavior of the cell. These results suggest that this directed binding has a critical role in the gliding mechanism. Mycoplasma species are the smallest bacteria and are parasitic and occasionally commensal, as represented by Mycoplasma pneumoniae, which causes so-called “walking pneumonia” in humans. Dozens of species glide on host tissues, always in the direction of the characteristic cellular protrusion, by novel mechanisms. The fastest species, Mycoplasma mobile, catches, pulls, and releases sialylated oligosaccharides (SOs), which are common targets among influenza viruses, by means of a specific receptor based on the energy of ATP hydrolysis. Here, force measurements made with optical tweezers revealed that the force required to detach a cell from SOs is smaller forward than backward along the gliding direction. The directed binding should be a clue to elucidate this novel motility mechanism.
Collapse
|
22
|
Miyata M, Hamaguchi T. Integrated Information and Prospects for Gliding Mechanism of the Pathogenic Bacterium Mycoplasma pneumoniae. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:960. [PMID: 27446003 PMCID: PMC4923136 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.00960] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2016] [Accepted: 06/02/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycoplasma pneumoniae forms a membrane protrusion at a cell pole and is known to adhere to solid surfaces, including animal cells, and can glide on these surfaces with a speed up to 1 μm per second. Notably, gliding appears to be involved in the infectious process in addition to providing the bacteria with a means of escaping the host's immune systems. However, the genome of M. pneumoniae does not encode any of the known genes found in other bacterial motility systems or any conventional motor proteins that are responsible for eukaryotic motility. Thus, further analysis of the mechanism underlying M. pneumoniae gliding is warranted. The gliding machinery formed as the membrane protrusion can be divided into the surface and internal structures. On the surface, P1 adhesin, a 170 kDa transmembrane protein forms an adhesin complex with other two proteins. The internal structure features a terminal button, paired plates, and a bowl (wheel) complex. In total, the organelle is composed of more than 15 proteins. By integrating the currently available information by genetics, microscopy, and structural analyses, we have suggested a working model for the architecture of the organelle. Furthermore, in this article, we suggest and discuss a possible mechanism of gliding based on the structural model, in which the force generated around the bowl complex transmits through the paired plates, reaching the adhesin complex, resulting in the repeated catch of sialylated oligosaccharides on the host surface by the adhesin complex.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Miyata
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City UniversityOsaka, Japan; The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City UniversityOsaka, Japan
| | - Tasuku Hamaguchi
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City UniversityOsaka, Japan; The OCU Advanced Research Institute for Natural Science and Technology, Osaka City UniversityOsaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Nan B, Zusman DR. Novel mechanisms power bacterial gliding motility. Mol Microbiol 2016; 101:186-93. [PMID: 27028358 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/29/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
For many bacteria, motility is essential for survival, growth, virulence, biofilm formation and intra/interspecies interactions. Since natural environments differ, bacteria have evolved remarkable motility systems to adapt, including swimming in aqueous media, and swarming, twitching and gliding on solid and semi-solid surfaces. Although tremendous advances have been achieved in understanding swimming and swarming motilities powered by flagella, and twitching motility powered by Type IV pili, little is known about gliding motility. Bacterial gliders are a heterogeneous group containing diverse bacteria that utilize surface motilities that do not depend on traditional flagella or pili, but are powered by mechanisms that are less well understood. Recently, advances in our understanding of the molecular machineries for several gliding bacteria revealed the roles of modified ion channels, secretion systems and unique machinery for surface movements. These novel mechanisms provide rich source materials for studying the function and evolution of complex microbial nanomachines. In this review, we summarize recent findings made on the gliding mechanisms of the myxobacteria, flavobacteria and mycoplasmas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Beiyan Nan
- Department of Biology, Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, 77843, USA
| | - David R Zusman
- Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 94720, USA
| |
Collapse
|
24
|
Reprint of “Prospects for the gliding mechanism of Mycoplasma mobile”. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 28:122-8. [PMID: 26711226 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile forms gliding machinery at a cell pole and glides continuously in the direction of the cell pole at up to 4.5 μm per second on solid surfaces such as animal cells. This motility system is not related to those of any other bacteria or eukaryotes. M. mobile uses ATP energy to repeatedly catch, pull, and release sialylated oligosaccharides on host cells with its approximately 50-nm long legs. The gliding machinery is a large structure composed of huge surface proteins and internal jellyfish-like structure. This system may have developed from an accidental combination between an adhesin and a rotary ATPase, both of which are essential for the adhesive parasitic life of Mycoplasmas.
Collapse
|
25
|
Lee W, Kinosita Y, Oh Y, Mikami N, Yang H, Miyata M, Nishizaka T, Kim D. Three-Dimensional Superlocalization Imaging of Gliding Mycoplasma mobile by Extraordinary Light Transmission through Arrayed Nanoholes. ACS NANO 2015; 9:10896-10908. [PMID: 26469129 DOI: 10.1021/acsnano.5b03934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
In this paper, we describe super-resolved sampling of live bacteria based on extraordinary optical transmission (EOT) of light. EOT is produced by surface plasmon confinement and coupling with nanostructures. Bacterial fluorescence is excited by the localized fields for subdiffraction-limited sampling. The concept was applied to elucidating bacterial dynamics of gliding Mycoplasma mobile (M. mobile). The results analyzed with multiple M. mobile bacteria show individual characters and reveal that M. mobile undergoes a significant axial variation at 94 nm. The sampling error of the method is estimated to be much smaller than 1/10 of the diffraction limit both in the lateral and depth axis. The method provides a powerful tool for investigation of biomolecular dynamics at subwavelength precision.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wonju Lee
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Yonsei University , Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | | | - Youngjin Oh
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Yonsei University , Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Nagisa Mikami
- Department of Physics, Gakushuin University , Tokyo 171-8588, Japan
| | - Heejin Yang
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Yonsei University , Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| | - Makoto Miyata
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University , Osaka 558-8585, Japan
| | | | - Donghyun Kim
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Yonsei University , Seoul 120-749, Republic of Korea
| |
Collapse
|
26
|
Gliding Direction of Mycoplasma mobile. J Bacteriol 2015; 198:283-90. [PMID: 26503848 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00499-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Mycoplasma mobile glides in the direction of its cell pole by a unique mechanism in which hundreds of legs, each protruding from its own gliding unit, catch, pull, and release sialylated oligosaccharides fixed on a solid surface. In this study, we found that 77% of cells glided to the left with a change in direction of 8.4° ± 17.6° μm(-1) displacement. The cell body did not roll around the cell axis, and elongated, thinner cells also glided while tracing a curved trajectory to the left. Under viscous conditions, the range of deviation of the gliding direction decreased. In the presence of 250 μM free sialyllactose, in which the binding of the legs (i.e., the catching of sialylated oligosaccharides) was reduced, 70% and 30% of cells glided to the left and the right, respectively, with changes in direction of ∼30° μm(-1). The gliding ghosts, in which a cell was permeabilized by Triton X-100 and reactivated by ATP, glided more straightly. These results can be explained by the following assumptions based on the suggested gliding machinery and mechanism: (i) the units of gliding machinery may be aligned helically around the cell, (ii) the legs extend via the process of thermal fluctuation and catch the sialylated oligosaccharides, and (iii) the legs generate a propulsion force that is tilted from the cell axis to the left in 70% and to the right in 30% of cells. IMPORTANCE Mycoplasmas are bacteria that are generally parasitic to animals and plants. Some Mycoplasma species form a protrusion at a pole, bind to solid surfaces, and glide. Although these species appear to consistently glide in the direction of the protrusion, their exact gliding direction has not been examined. This study analyzed the gliding direction in detail under various conditions and, based on the results, suggested features of the machinery and the mechanism of gliding.
Collapse
|
27
|
Miyata M, Hamaguchi T. Prospects for the gliding mechanism of Mycoplasma mobile. Curr Opin Microbiol 2015; 29:15-21. [PMID: 26500189 DOI: 10.1016/j.mib.2015.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Revised: 08/01/2015] [Accepted: 08/03/2015] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile forms gliding machinery at a cell pole and glides continuously in the direction of the cell pole at up to 4.5μm per second on solid surfaces such as animal cells. This motility system is not related to those of any other bacteria or eukaryotes. M. mobile uses ATP energy to repeatedly catch, pull, and release sialylated oligosaccharides on host cells with its approximately 50-nm long legs. The gliding machinery is a large structure composed of huge surface proteins and internal jellyfish-like structure. This system may have developed from an accidental combination between an adhesin and a rotary ATPase, both of which are essential for the adhesive parasitic life of Mycoplasmas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Miyata
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Tasuku Hamaguchi
- Graduate School of Science, Osaka City University, Sumiyoshi-ku, Osaka, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
28
|
Gliding Motility of Mycoplasma mobile on Uniform Oligosaccharides. J Bacteriol 2015; 197:2952-7. [PMID: 26148712 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00335-15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED The binding and gliding of Mycoplasma mobile on a plastic plate covered by 53 uniform oligosaccharides were analyzed. Mycoplasmas bound to and glided on only 21 of the fixed sialylated oligosaccharides (SOs), showing that sialic acid is essential as the binding target. The affinities were mostly consistent with our previous results on the inhibitory effects of free SOs and suggested that M. mobile recognizes SOs from the nonreducing end with four continuous sites as follows. (i and ii) A sialic acid at the nonreducing end is tightly recognized by tandemly connected two sites. (iii) The third site is recognized by a loose groove that may be affected by branches. (iv) The fourth site is recognized by a large groove that may be enhanced by branches, especially those with a negative charge. The cells glided on uniform SOs in manners apparently similar to those of the gliding on mixed SOs. The gliding speed was related inversely to the mycoplasma's affinity for SO, suggesting that the detaching step may be one of the speed determinants. The cells glided faster and with smaller fluctuations on the uniform SOs than on the mixtures, suggesting that the drag caused by the variation in SOs influences gliding behaviors. IMPORTANCE Mycoplasma is a group of bacteria generally parasitic to animals and plants. Some Mycoplasma species form a protrusion at a pole, bind to solid surfaces, and glide in the direction of the protrusion. These procedures are essential for parasitism. Usually, mycoplasmas glide on mixed sialylated oligosaccharides (SOs) derived from glycoprotein and glycolipid. Since gliding motility on uniform oligosaccharides has never been observed, this study gives critical information about recognition and interaction between receptors and SOs.
Collapse
|
29
|
Balish MF. Giant steps toward understanding a mycoplasma gliding motor. Trends Microbiol 2014; 22:429-31. [PMID: 24986074 DOI: 10.1016/j.tim.2014.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
Mycoplasma mobile carries out gliding motility using a novel motor whose proposed mechanism more closely resembles eukaryotic cytoskeletal motors than other bacterial ones. High-resolution microscopy and techniques that take advantage of the special properties of the mycoplasma cell reveal that this motor propels cells in steps of discrete size.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mitchell F Balish
- Department of Microbiology, Miami University, Oxford, OH 45056, USA.
| |
Collapse
|