Assembly, translocation, and activation of XerCD-dif recombination by FtsK translocase analyzed in real-time by FRET and two-color tethered fluorophore motion

A bipartite thermodynamic-kinetic contribution by an activating mutation to RDF-independent excision by a phage serine integrase

Streptomyces phage ϕC31 integrase (Int)—a large serine site-specific recombinase—is autonomous for phage integration (attP x attB recombination) but is dependent on the phage coded gp3, a recombination directionality factor (RDF), for prophage excision (attL x attR recombination). A previously described activating mutation, E449K, induces Int to perform attL x attR recombination in the absence of gp3, albeit with lower efficiency. E449K has no adverse effect on the competence of Int for attP x attB recombination. Int(E449K) resembles Int in gp3 mediated stimulation of attL x attR recombination and inhibition of attP x attB recombination. Using single-molecule analyses, we examined the mechanism by which E449K activates Int for gp3-independent attL x attR recombination. The contribution of E449K is both thermodynamic and kinetic. First, the mutation modulates the relative abundance of Int bound attL-attR site complexes, favoring pre-synaptic (PS) complexes over non-productively bound complexes. Roughly half of the synaptic complexes formed from Int(E449K) pre-synaptic complexes are recombination competent. By contrast, Int yields only inactive synapses. Second, E449K accelerates the dissociation of non-productively bound complexes and inactive synaptic complexes formed by Int. The extra opportunities afforded to Int(E499K) in reattempting synapse formation enhances the probability of success at fruitful synapsis.

The TLCΦ satellite phage harbors a Xer recombination activation factor

The circular chromosomes of bacteria can be concatenated into dimers by homologous recombination. Dimers are solved by the addition of a cross-over at a specific chromosomal site, dif, by 2 related tyrosine recombinases, XerC and XerD. Each enzyme catalyzes the exchange of a specific pair of strands. Some plasmids exploit the Xer machinery for concatemer resolution. Other mobile elements exploit it to integrate into the genome of their host. Chromosome dimer resolution is initiated by XerD. The reaction is under the control of a cell-division protein, FtsK, which activates XerD by a direct contact. Most mobile elements exploit FtsK-independent Xer recombination reactions initiated by XerC. The only notable exception is the toxin-linked cryptic satellite phage of Vibrio cholerae, TLCΦ, which integrates into and excises from the dif site of the primary chromosome of its host by a reaction initiated by XerD. However, the reaction remains independent of FtsK. Here, we show that TLCΦ carries a Xer recombination activation factor, XafT. We demonstrate in vitro that XafT activates XerD catalysis. Correspondingly, we found that XafT specifically interacts with XerD. We further show that integrative mobile elements exploiting Xer (IMEXs) encoding a XafT-like protein are widespread in gamma- and beta-proteobacteria, including human, animal, and plant pathogens.

Segregation but Not Replication of the Pseudomonas aeruginosa Chromosome Terminates at Dif

Coordination between chromosome replication and segregation is essential for equal partitioning of genetic material between daughter cells. In bacteria, this is achieved through the proximity of the origin of replication, oriC, and the chromosome partitioning site, parS We report here that in Pseudomonas aeruginosa, segregation but not replication is also controlled at the terminus region of the chromosome. Using the fluorescent repressor operator system (FROS), we investigated chromosome segregation in P. aeruginosa strain PAO1-UW, wherein the chromosome dimer resolution site, dif, is asymmetrically positioned relative to oriC In these cells, segregation proceeded sequentially along the two chromosomal arms and terminated at dif In contrast, chromosome replication terminated elsewhere, opposite from oriC We further found two large domains on the longer arm of the chromosome, wherein DNA segregated simultaneously. Notably, GC-skew, which reflects a bias in nucleotide usage between the leading and lagging strands of the chromosome, switches polarity at the dif locus but not necessarily at the terminus of replication. These data demonstrate that termination of chromosome replication and segregation can be physically separated without adverse effects on bacterial fitness. They also reveal the critical role of the dif region in defining the global layout of the chromosome and the progression of chromosome segregation and suggest that chromosome packing adapts to its subcellular layout.IMPORTANCE Segregation of genetic information is a central event in cellular life. In bacteria, chromosome segregation occurs concurrently with replication, sequentially along the two arms from oriC to dif How the two processes are coordinated is unknown. We explored here chromosome segregation in an opportunistic human pathogen, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, using its strain with markedly unequal chromosomal arms. We found that replication and segregation diverge in this strain and terminate at very different locations, whereas the longer chromosomal arm folds into large domains to align itself with the shorter arm. The significance of this research is in establishing that segregation and replication of bacterial chromosomes are largely uncoupled from each other and that the large-scale structure of the chromosome adapts to its subcellular layout.

Tethered multifluorophore motion reveals equilibrium transition kinetics of single DNA double helices

Understanding cellular functions and dysfunctions often begins with quantifying the interactions between the binding partners involved in the processes. Learning about the kinetics of the interactions is of particular importance to understand the dynamics of cellular processes. We created a tethered multifluorophore motion assay using DNA origami that enables over 1-hour-long recordings of the statistical binding and unbinding of single pairs of biomolecules directly in equilibrium. The experimental concept is simple and the data interpretation is very direct, which makes the system easy to use for a wide variety of researchers. Due to the modularity and addressability of the DNA origami-based assay, our system may be readily adapted to study various other molecular interactions.

We describe a tethered multifluorophore motion assay based on DNA origami for revealing bimolecular reaction kinetics on the single-molecule level. Molecular binding partners may be placed at user-defined positions and in user-defined stoichiometry; and binding states are read out by tracking the motion of quickly diffusing fluorescent reporter units. Multiple dyes per reporter unit enable singe-particle observation for more than 1 hour. We applied the system to study in equilibrium reversible hybridization and dissociation of complementary DNA single strands as a function of tether length, cation concentration, and sequence. We observed up to hundreds of hybridization and dissociation events per single reactant pair and could produce cumulative statistics with tens of thousands of binding and unbinding events. Because the binding partners per particle do not exchange, we could also detect subtle heterogeneity from molecule to molecule, which enabled separating data reflecting the actual target strand pair binding kinetics from falsifying influences stemming from chemically truncated oligonucleotides. Our data reflected that mainly DNA strand hybridization, but not strand dissociation, is affected by cation concentration, in agreement with previous results from different assays. We studied 8-bp-long DNA duplexes with virtually identical thermodynamic stability, but different sequences, and observed strongly differing hybridization kinetics. Complementary full-atom molecular-dynamics simulations indicated two opposing sequence-dependent phenomena: helical templating in purine-rich single strands and secondary structures. These two effects can increase or decrease, respectively, the fraction of strand collisions leading to successful nucleation events for duplex formation.

Single-Molecule Tethered Particle Motion: Stepwise Analyses of Site-Specific DNA Recombination

Tethered particle motion/microscopy (TPM) is a biophysical tool used to analyze changes in the effective length of a polymer, tethered at one end, under changing conditions. The tether length is measured indirectly by recording the Brownian motion amplitude of a bead attached to the other end. In the biological realm, DNA, whose interactions with proteins are often accompanied by apparent or real changes in length, has almost exclusively been the subject of TPM studies. TPM has been employed to study DNA bending, looping and wrapping, DNA compaction, high-order DNA⁻protein assembly, and protein translocation along DNA. Our TPM analyses have focused on tyrosine and serine site-specific recombinases. Their pre-chemical interactions with DNA cause reversible changes in DNA length, detectable by TPM. The chemical steps of recombination, depending on the substrate and the type of recombinase, may result in a permanent length change. Single molecule TPM time traces provide thermodynamic and kinetic information on each step of the recombination pathway. They reveal how mechanistically related recombinases may differ in their early commitment to recombination, reversibility of individual steps, and in the rate-limiting step of the reaction. They shed light on the pre-chemical roles of catalytic residues, and on the mechanisms by which accessory proteins regulate recombination directionality.

Xer Site Specific Recombination: Double and Single Recombinase Systems

The separation and segregation of newly replicated bacterial chromosomes can be constrained by the formation of circular chromosome dimers caused by crossing over during homologous recombination events. In Escherichia coli and most bacteria, dimers are resolved to monomers by site-specific recombination, a process performed by two Chromosomally Encoded tyrosine Recombinases (XerC and XerD). XerCD recombinases act at a 28 bp recombination site dif, which is located at the replication terminus region of the chromosome. The septal protein FtsK controls the initiation of the dimer resolution reaction, so that recombination occurs at the right time (immediately prior to cell division) and at the right place (cell division septum). XerCD and FtsK have been detected in nearly all sequenced eubacterial genomes including Proteobacteria, Archaea, and Firmicutes. However, in Streptococci and Lactococci, an alternative system has been found, composed of a single recombinase (XerS) genetically linked to an atypical 31 bp recombination site (difSL). A similar recombination system has also been found in 𝜀-proteobacteria such as Campylobacter and Helicobacter, where a single recombinase (XerH) acts at a resolution site called difH. Most Archaea contain a recombinase called XerA that acts on a highly conserved 28 bp sequence dif, which appears to act independently of FtsK. Additionally, several mobile elements have been found to exploit the dif/Xer system to integrate their genomes into the host chromosome in Vibrio cholerae, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, and Enterobacter cloacae. This review highlights the versatility of dif/Xer recombinase systems in prokaryotes and summarizes our current understanding of homologs of dif/Xer machineries.

Requirements for Septal Localization and Chromosome Segregation Activity of the DNA Translocase SftA from Bacillus subtilis

Bacillus subtilis possesses 2 DNA translocases that affect late stages of chromosome segregation: SftA separates nonsegregated DNA prior to septum closure, while SpoIIIE rescues septum-entrapped DNA. We provide evidence that SftA is associated with the division machinery via a stretch of 47 amino acids within its N-terminus, suggesting that SftA is recruited by protein-protein interactions with a component of the division machinery. SftA was also recruited to mid-cell in the absence of its first 20 amino acids, which are proposed to contain a membrane-binding motif. Cell fractionation experiments showed that SftA can be found in the cytosolic fraction, and to a minor degree in the membrane fraction, showing that it is a soluble protein in vivo. The expression of truncated SftA constructs led to a dominant sftA deletion phenotype, even at very low induction rates of the truncated proteins, indicating that the incorporation of nonfunctional monomers into SftA hexamers abolishes functionality. Mobility shift experiments and surface plasmon binding studies showed that SftA binds to DNA in a cooperative manner, and demonstrated low ATPase activity when binding to short nucleotides rather than to long stretches of DNA.

Structural snapshots of Xer recombination reveal activation by synaptic complex remodeling and DNA bending

Bacterial Xer site-specific recombinases play an essential genome maintenance role by unlinking chromosome multimers, but their mechanism of action has remained structurally uncharacterized. Here, we present two high-resolution structures of Helicobacter pylori XerH with its recombination site DNA dif_H, representing pre-cleavage and post-cleavage synaptic intermediates in the recombination pathway. The structures reveal that activation of DNA strand cleavage and rejoining involves large conformational changes and DNA bending, suggesting how interaction with the cell division protein FtsK may license recombination at the septum. Together with biochemical and in vivo analysis, our structures also reveal how a small sequence asymmetry in dif_H defines protein conformation in the synaptic complex and orchestrates the order of DNA strand exchanges. Our results provide insights into the catalytic mechanism of Xer recombination and a model for regulation of recombination activity during cell division.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19706.001

Similar to humans, bacteria store their genetic material in the form of DNA and arrange it into structures called chromosomes. In fact, most bacteria have a single circular chromosome. Bacteria multiply by simply dividing in two, and before that happens they must replicate their DNA so that each of the newly formed cells receives one copy of the chromosome.

Occasionally, mistakes during the DNA replication process can cause the two chromosomes to become tangled with each other; this prevents them from separating into the newly formed cells. For instance, the chromosomes can become physically connected like links in a chain, or merge into one long string. This kind of tangling can result in cell death, so bacteria encode enzymes called Xer recombinases that can untangle chromosomes. These enzymes separate the chromosomes by cutting and rejoining the DNA strands in a process known as Xer recombination.

Although Xer recombinases have been studied in quite some detail, many questions remain unanswered about how they work. How do Xer recombinases interact with DNA? How do they ensure they only work on tangled chromosomes? And how does a protein called FtsK ensure that Xer recombination takes place at the correct time and place?

Bebel et al. have now studied the Xer recombinase from a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori, which causes stomach ulcers, using a technique called X-ray crystallography. This enabled the three-dimensional structure of the Xer recombinase to be visualized as it interacted with DNA to form a Xer-DNA complex. Structures of the enzyme before and after it cut the DNA show that Xer-DNA complexes first assemble in an inactive state and are then activated by large conformational changes that make the DNA bend. Bebel et al. propose that the FtsK protein might trigger these changes and help to bend the DNA as it activates Xer recombination.

Further work showed that the structures could be used to model and understand Xer recombinases from other species of bacteria. The next step is to analyze how FtsK activates Xer recombinases and to see if this process is universal amongst bacteria. Understanding how this process can be interrupted could help to develop new drugs that can kill harmful bacteria.

DOI:http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.19706.002

FtsK translocation permits discrimination between an endogenous and an imported Xer/dif recombination complex

In bacteria, the FtsK/Xer/dif (chromosome dimer resolution site) system is essential for faithful vertical genetic transmission, ensuring the resolution of chromosome dimers during their segregation to daughter cells. This system is also targeted by mobile genetic elements that integrate into chromosomal dif sites. A central question is thus how Xer/dif recombination is tuned to both act in chromosome segregation and stably maintain mobile elements. To explore this question, we focused on pathogenic Neisseria species harboring a genomic island in their dif sites. We show that the FtsK DNA translocase acts differentially at the recombination sites flanking the genomic island. It stops at one Xer/dif complex, activating recombination, but it does not stop on the other site, thus dismantling it. FtsK translocation thus permits cis discrimination between an endogenous and an imported Xer/dif recombination complex.