Direct observation of dipolar couplings between distant protons in weakly aligned nucleic acids

Probing Long-Range Anisotropic Interactions: a General and Sign-Sensitive Strategy to Measure 1 H-1 H Residual Dipolar Couplings as a Key Advance for Organic Structure Determination

Residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) are amongst the most powerful NMR parameters for organic structure elucidation. In order to maximize their effectiveness in increasingly complex cases such as flexible compounds, a maximum of RDCs between nuclei sampling a large distribution of orientations is needed, including sign information. For this, the easily accessible one-bond ¹ H-¹³ C RDCs alone often fall short. Long-range ¹ H-¹ H RDCs are both abundant and typically sample highly complementary orientations, but accessing them in a sign-sensitive way has been severely obstructed due to the overflow of ¹ H-¹ H couplings. Here, we present a generally applicable strategy that allows the measurement of a large number of ¹ H-¹ H RDCs, including their signs, which is based on a combination of an improved PSYCHEDELIC method and a new selective constant-time β-COSY experiment. The potential of ¹ H-¹ H RDCs to better determine molecular alignment and to discriminate between enantiomers and diastereomers is demonstrated.

Investigating protein conformational energy landscapes and atomic resolution dynamics from NMR dipolar couplings: a review

Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is exquisitely sensitive to protein dynamics. In particular inter-nuclear dipolar couplings, that become measurable in solution when the protein is dissolved in a dilute liquid crystalline solution, report on all conformations sampled up to millisecond timescales. As such they provide the opportunity to describe the Boltzmann distribution present in solution at atomic resolution, and thereby to map the conformational energy landscape in unprecedented detail. The development of analytical methods and approaches based on numerical simulation and their application to numerous biologically important systems is presented.

Measurement of (1)H-(15)N and (1)H-(13)C residual dipolar couplings in nucleic acids from TROSY intensities

Analogous to the recently introduced ARTSY method for measurement of one-bond (1)H-(15)N residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) in large perdeuterated proteins, we introduce methods for measurement of base (13)C-(1)H and (15)N-(1)H RDCs in protonated nucleic acids. Measurements are based on quantitative analysis of intensities in (1)H-(15)N and (13)C-(1)H TROSY-HSQC spectra, and are illustrated for a 71-nucleotide adenine riboswitch. Results compare favorably with those of conventional frequency-based measurements in terms of completeness and convenience of use. The ARTSY method derives the size of the coupling from the ratio of intensities observed in two TROSY-HSQC spectra recorded with different dephasing delays, thereby minimizing potential resonance overlap problems. Precision of the RDC measurements is limited by the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, achievable in the 2D TROSY-HSQC reference spectrum, and is approximately given by 30/(S/N) Hz for (15)N-(1)H and 65/(S/N) Hz for (13)C-(1)H. The signal-to-noise ratio of both (1)H-(15)N and (1)H-(13)C spectra greatly benefits when water magnetization during the experiments is not perturbed, such that rapid magnetization transfer from bulk water to the nucleic acid, mediated by rapid amino and hydroxyl hydrogen exchange coupled with (1)H-(1)H NOE transfer, allows for fast repetition of the experiment. RDCs in the mutated helix 1 of the riboswitch are compatible with nucleotide-specifically modeled, idealized A-form geometry and a static orientation relative to the helix 2/3 pair, which differs by ca 6° relative to the X-ray structure of the native riboswitch.

Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of protein-DNA interactions

Recent methodological and instrumental advances in solution-state nuclear magnetic resonance have opened up the way to investigating challenging problems in structural biology such as large macromolecular complexes. This review focuses on the experimental strategies currently employed to solve structures of protein-DNA complexes and to analyse their dynamics. It highlights how these approaches can help in understanding detailed molecular mechanisms of target recognition.

The use of residual dipolar coupling in studying proteins by NMR

The development of residual dipolar coupling (RDC) in protein NMR spectroscopy, over a decade ago, has become a useful and almost routine tool for accurate protein solution structure determination. RDCs provide orientation information of magnetic dipole-dipole interaction vectors within a common reference frame. Its measurement requires a nonisotropic orientation, through a direct or indirect magnetic field alignment, of the protein in solution. There has been recent progress in the developments of alignment methods to allow the measurement of RDC and of methods to analyze the resulting data. In this chapter we briefly go through the mathematical expressions for the RDC and common descriptions of the alignment tensor, which may be represented using either Saupe order or the principal order matrix. Then we review the latest developments in alignment media. In particular we looked at the lipid-compatible media that allow the measurement of RDCs for membrane proteins. Other methods including conservative surface residue mutation have been invented to obtain up to five orthogonal alignment tensors that provide a potential for de novo structure and dynamics study using RDCs exclusively. We then discuss approximations assumed in RDC interpretations and different views on dynamics uncovered from the RDC method. In addition to routine usage of RDCs in refining a single structure, novel applications such as ensemble refinement against RDCs have been implemented to represent protein structure and dynamics in solution. The RDC application also extends to the study of protein-substrate interaction as well as to solving quaternary structure of oligomer in equilibrium with a monomer, opening an avenue for RDCs in high-order protein structure determination.

Quantitative 2D and 3D Gamma-HCP experiments for the determination of the angles alpha and zeta in the phosphodiester backbone of oligonucleotides

The quantitative Gamma-(HCP) experiment, a novel heteronuclear NMR pulse sequence for the determination of the RNA backbone angles alpha(O3'(i-1)-P(i)-O5'(i)-C5'(i)) and zeta(C3'(i)-O3'(i)-P(i+1)-O5'(i+1)) in (13)C-labeled RNA, is introduced. The experiment relies on the interaction between the CH bond vector dipole and the (31)P chemical shift anisotropy (CSA), which affects the relaxation of the (13)C,(31)P double- and zero-quantum coherence and thus the intensity of the detectable magnetization. With the new pulse sequence, five different cross-correlated relaxation rates along the phosphodiester backbone can be measured in a quantitative manner, allowing projection-angle and torsion-angle restraints for the two backbone angles alpha and zeta to be extracted. Two versions of the pulse sequence optimized for the CH and CH(2) groups are introduced and demonstrated for a 14-mer cUUCGg tetraloop RNA model system and for a 27-mer RNA with a previously unknown structure. The restraints were incorporated into the calculation of a very high resolution structure of the RNA model system (Nozinovic, S.; et al. Nucleic Acids Res. 2010, 38, 683). Comparison with the X-ray structure of the cUUCGg tetraloop confirmed the high quality of the data, suggesting that the method can significantly improve the quality of RNA structure determination.

Facile measurement of ¹H-¹5N residual dipolar couplings in larger perdeuterated proteins

We present a simple method, ARTSY, for extracting ¹J(NH) couplings and ¹H-¹⁵N RDCs from an interleaved set of two-dimensional ¹H-¹⁵N TROSY-HSQC spectra, based on the principle of quantitative J correlation. The primary advantage of the ARTSY method over other methods is the ability to measure couplings without scaling peak positions or altering the narrow line widths characteristic of TROSY spectra. Accuracy of the method is demonstrated for the model system GB3. Application to the catalytic core domain of HIV integrase, a 36 kDa homodimer with unfavorable spectral characteristics, demonstrates its practical utility. Precision of the RDC measurement is limited by the signal-to-noise ratio, S/N, achievable in the 2D TROSY-HSQC spectrum, and is approximately given by 30/(S/N) Hz.

Measurement of imino 1H-1H residual dipolar couplings in RNA

Imino (1)H-(15)N residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) provide additional structural information that complements standard (1)H-(1)H NOEs leading to improvements in both the local and global structure of RNAs. Here, we report measurement of imino (1)H-(1)H RDCs for the Iron Responsive Element (IRE) RNA and native E. coli tRNA(Val) using a BEST-Jcomp-HMQC2 experiment. (1)H-(1)H RDCs are observed between the imino protons in G-U wobble base pairs and between imino protons on neighboring base pairs in both RNAs. These imino (1)H-(1)H RDCs complement standard (1)H-(15)N RDCs because the (1)H-(1)H vectors generally point along the helical axis, roughly perpendicular to (1)H-(15)N RDCs. The use of longitudinal relaxation enhancement increased the signal-to-noise of the spectra by ~3.5-fold over the standard experiment. The ability to measure imino (1)H-(1)H RDCs offers a new restraint, which can be used in NMR domain orientation and structural studies of RNAs.

Crystallographic analysis of a sex-specific enhancer element: sequence-dependent DNA structure, hydration, and dynamics

The crystal structure of a sex-specific enhancer element is described at a resolution of 1.6 A. This 16-bp site, designated Dsx(A), functions in the regulation of a genetic switch between male and female patterns of gene expression in Drosophila melanogaster. Related sites are broadly conserved in metazoans, including in the human genome. This enhancer element is unusually rich in general regulatory sequences related to DNA recognition by multiple classes of eukaryotic transcription factors, including the DM motifs, homeodomain, and high mobility group box. Whereas free DNA is often crystallized as an A-form double helix, Dsx(A) was crystallized as B-DNA and thus provides a model for the prebound conformation of diverse regulatory DNA complexes. Sequence-dependent conformational properties that extend features of shorter B-DNA fragments with respect to double helical parameters, groove widths, hydration, and binding of divalent metal ions are observed. The structure also exhibits a sequence-dependent pattern of isotropic thermal B-factors, suggesting possible variation in the local flexibility of the DNA backbone. Such fluctuations are in accord with structural variability observed in prior B-DNA structures. We speculate that sites of intrinsic flexibility within a DNA control element provide hinges for its protein-directed reorganization in a transcriptional preinitiation complex.

Sensitivity-optimized experiment for the measurement of residual dipolar couplings between amide protons

High signal to noise is a necessity for the quantification of NMR spectral parameters to be translated into accurate and precise restraints on protein structure and dynamics. An important source of long-range structural information is obtained from (1)H-(1)H residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) measured for weakly aligned molecules. For sensitivity reasons, such measurements are generally performed on highly deuterated protein samples. Here we show that high sensitivity is also obtained for protonated protein samples if the pulse schemes are optimized in terms of longitudinal relaxation efficiency and J-mismatch compensated coherence transfer. The new sensitivity-optimized quantitative J-correlation experiment yields important signal gains reaching factors of 1.5 to 8 for individual correlation peaks when compared to previously proposed pulse schemes.

Structural Characterization of a Rigidified Threading Bisintercalator

NMR spectroscopy was used to explore the sequence-specific interaction of DNA with a new threading bisintercalator (C1) consisting of two intercalating 1,4,5,8-naphthalenetetracarboxylic diimide (NDI) units connected by a rigid, tricyclic spiro linker. A structural model of C1 complexed to d(CGGTACCG)(2) was calculated using distance constraints obtained from solution NMR data. The model was also supported by the results from residual dipolar coupling (RDC) measurements obtained using Pf1-phage as a cosolvent. According to the model, the central cyclohexane ring of the linker connecting the two NDI units lies flat in the minor groove of DNA. Linker length, hydrogen bonding, steric, and hydrophobic factors all appear to contribute to the observed sequence specificity of binding. These results serve to illustrate the versatility of threading polyintercalation given that, in a previous study, a ligand consisiting of two NDI units joined by a flexible peptide linker was shown to bind sequence specifically within the major groove of this same sequence of DNA.

Improving pulse sequences for 3D diffusion-ordered NMR spectroscopy: 2DJ-IDOSY

An improved pulse sequence for the 3D DOSY experiment 2DJ-DOSY, using diffusion encoding internal to the parent 2DJ spectroscopy sequence (2DJ-IDOSY), is presented. The diffusion-encoding pulses are used to enforce the desired coherence transfer pathway, reducing the minimum experimental time by at least a factor of 4, as compared to existing techniques, and approximately doubling the signal-to-noise ratio for small molecules. The new sequence is demonstrated on a simple mixture and on a complex sample with a high dynamic range (port wine). The principle of internal diffusion encoding can be applied with profit to a range of other 3D DOSY experiments.

Weak alignment NMR: a hawk-eyed view of biomolecular structure

Imposing a very slight deviation from the isotropic random distribution of macromolecules in solution in an NMR sample tube permits the measurement of residual internuclear dipolar couplings (RDCs). Such interactions are very sensitive functions of the time-averaged orientation of the corresponding internuclear vectors and thereby offer highly precise structural information. In recent years, advances have been made both in the technology to measure RDCs and in the computational procedures that integrate this information in the structure determination process. The exceptional precision with which RDCs can be measured under weakly aligned conditions is also starting to reveal the mostly, but not universally, subtle effects of internal protein dynamics. Importantly, RDCs potentially can reveal motions taking place on a timescale slower than rotational diffusion and analysis is uniquely sensitive to the direction of motion, not just its amplitude.

NMR methods for studying the structure and dynamics of RNA

Proper functioning of RNAs requires the formation of complex three-dimensional structures combined with the ability to rapidly interconvert between multiple functional states. This review covers recent advances in isotope-labeling strategies and NMR experimental approaches that have promise for facilitating solution structure determinations and dynamics studies of biologically active RNAs. Improved methods for the production of isotopically labeled RNAs combined with new multidimensional heteronuclear NMR experiments make it possible to dramatically reduce spectral crowding and simplify resonance assignments for RNAs. Several novel applications of experiments that directly detect hydrogen-bonding interactions are discussed. These studies demonstrate how NMR spectroscopy can be used to distinguish between possible secondary structures and identify mechanisms of ligand binding in RNAs. A variety of recently developed methods for measuring base and sugar residual dipolar couplings are described. NMR residual dipolar coupling techniques provide valuable data for determining the long-range structure and orientation of helical regions in RNAs. A number of studies are also presented where residual dipolar coupling constraints are used to determine the global structure and dynamics of RNAs. NMR relaxation data can be used to probe the dynamics of macromolecules in solution. The power dependence of transverse rotating-frame relaxation rates was used here to study dynamics in the minimal hammerhead ribozyme. Improved methods for isotopically labeling RNAs combined with new types of structural data obtained from a growing repertoire of NMR experiments are facilitating structural and dynamic studies of larger RNAs.

IP-COSY, a totally in-phase and sensitive COSY experiment

The IP-COSY experiment presented in this paper gives an in-phase spectral presentation in both the F(1) and F(2) dimensions by a combined use of a constant evolution time (CT) in t(1) and a symmetrical refocusing period before t(2). Compared with DQF-COSY and CT-COSY, IP-COSY further alleviates the effect of signal reduction due to a small ratio p (= J/linewidth), showing (1) improved lineshape and cross-peak definition and (2) especially enhancement in signals of the peaks of small active J coupling constant and the peaks of broader linewidth. A new strategy was adopted to eliminate or reduce effectively artifactual peaks by adding a 0.1-0.2 ms variation to the time delays of the CT period used for each scan of the FID in IP-COSY and CT-COSY. (3)J(H,H) coupling constants of larger than 4 Hz in the fingerprint region of peptides can be directly derived from the separation of doublets. IP-COSY cross peaks are stronger than those in DQF-COSY by 4-20-fold for tested peptides and oligonucleotides (MW < 8 kDa) with acquisition and processing parameters used in the work, and they are easier to identify than those in CT-COSY. The overall improvement in IP-COSY should make the detection/autodetection of the COSY cross peaks and the measurements of the various coupling constants more easily achieved, providing valuable information for the structure elucidation of peptides/small proteins and oligonucleotides.

Measurement of Ribose Carbon Chemical Shift Tensors for A-form RNA by Liquid Crystal NMR Spectroscopy

Incomplete motional averaging of chemical shift anisotropy upon weak alignment of nucleic acids and proteins in a magnetic field results in small changes in chemical shift. Knowledge of nucleus-specific chemical shift (CS) tensor magnitudes and orientations is necessary to take full advantage of these measurements in biomolecular structure determination. We report the determination by liquid crystal NMR of the CS tensors for all ribose carbons in A-form helical RNA, using a series of novel 3D NMR pulse sequences for accurate and resolved measurement of the ribose (13)C chemical shifts. The orientation of the riboses relative to the rhombic alignment tensor of the molecule studied, a stem-loop sequence corresponding to helix-35 of 23S rRNA, is known from an extensive set of residual dipolar couplings (RDC), previously used to refine its structure. Singular-value-decomposition fits of the chemical shift changes to this structure, or alternatively to a database of helical RNA X-ray structures, provide the CS tensor for each type of carbon. Quantum chemical calculations complement the experimental results and confirm that the most shielded tensor component lies approximately along the local carbon-oxygen bond axis in all cases and that shielding anisotropy for C3' and C4' is much larger than for C1' and C2', with C5' being intermediate.

Accurate measurement of 15N-13C residual dipolar couplings in nucleic acids

New 3D HCN quantitative J (QJ) pulse schemes are presented for the precise and accurate measurement of one-bond 15N1/9-13C1', 15N1/9-13C6/8, and 15N1/9-13C2/4 residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) in weakly aligned nucleic acids. The methods employ 1H-13C multiple quantum (MQ) coherence or TROSY-type pulse sequences for optimal resolution and sensitivity. RDCs are obtained from the intensity ratio of H1'-C1'-N1/9 (MQ-HCN-QJ) or H6/8-C6/8-N1/9 (TROSY-HCN-QJ) correlations in two interleaved 3D NMR spectra, with dephasing intervals of zero (reference spectrum) and approximately 1/(2J(NC)) (attenuated spectrum). The different types of 15N-13C couplings can be obtained by using either the 3D MQ-HCN-QJ or TROSY-HCN-QJ pulse scheme, with the appropriate setting of the duration of the constant-time 15N evolution period and the offset of two frequency-selective 13C pulses. The methods are demonstrated for a uniformly 13C, 15N-enriched 24-nucleotide stem-loop RNA sequence, helix-35psi, aligned in the magnetic field using phage Pf1. For measurements of RDCs systematic errors are found to be negligible, and experiments performed on a 1.5 mM helix-35psi sample result in an estimated precision of ca. 0.07 Hz for 1D(NC), indicating the utility of the measured RDCs in structure validation and refinement. Indeed, for a complete set of 15N1/9-13C1', 15N1/9-13C6/8, and 15N1/9-13C2/4 dipolar couplings obtained for the stem nucleotides, the measured RDCs are in excellent agreement with those predicted for an NMR structure of helix-35psi, refined using independently measured observables, including 13C-1H, 13C-13C and 1H-1H dipolar couplings.

Compensating bends in a 16-base-pair DNA oligomer containing a T(3)A(3) segment: A NMR study of global DNA curvature

In-phase ligated DNA containing T(n)A(n) segments fail to exhibit the retarded polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) migration observed for in-phase ligated A(n)T(n) segments, a behavior thought to be correlated with macroscopic DNA curvature. The lack of macroscopic curvature in ligated T(n)A(n) segments is thought to be due to cancellation of bending in regions flanking the TpA steps. To address this issue, solution-state NMR, including residual dipolar coupling (RDC) restraints, was used to determine a high-resolution structure of [d(CGAGGTTTAAACCTCG)2], a DNA oligomer containing a T3A3 tract. The overall magnitude and direction of bending, including the regions flanking the central TpA step, was measured using a radius of curvature, Rc, analysis. The Rc for the overall molecule indicated a small magnitude of global bending (Rc = 138 +/- 23 nm) towards the major groove, whereas the Rc for the two halves (72 +/- 33 nm and 69 +/- 14 nm) indicated greater localized bending into the minor groove. The direction of bending in the regions flanking the TpA step is in partial opposition (109 degrees), contributing to cancellation of bending. The cancellation of bending did not correlate with a pattern of roll values at the TpA step, or at the 5' and 3' junctions, of the T3A3 segment, suggesting a simple junction/roll model is insufficient to predict cancellation of DNA bending in all T(n)A(n) junction sequence contexts. Importantly, Rc analysis of structures refined without RDC restraints lacked the precision and accuracy needed to reliably measure bending.

Application of NMR and EPR methods to the study of RNA

The application of techniques based on magnetic resonance, specifically electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), has provided a wealth of new information on RNA structures, as well as insights into the dynamics and function of these important biomolecules. NMR spectroscopy is very successful for determining the solution structures of small RNA domains, aptamers and ribozymes, and exploring their intramolecular dynamics and interactions with ligands. EPR-based methods have been used to map local dynamic and structural features of RNA, to explore different modes of RNA-ligand interaction, to obtain long-range structural restraints and to probe metal-ion-binding sites.

Improved detection of long-range residual dipolar couplings in weakly aligned samples by Lee-Goldburg decoupling of homonuclear dipolar truncation

Homonuclear (1)H residual dipolar couplings (RDCs) truncate the evolution of transverse (1)H magnetization of weakly aligned molecules in high-resolution NMR experiments. This leads to losses in sensitivity or resolution in experiments that require extended (1)H evolution times. Lee-Goldburg decoupling schemes have been shown to remove the effects of homonuclear dipolar couplings, while preserving chemical shift evolution in a number of solid-state NMR applications. Here, it is shown that the Lee-Goldburg sequence can be effectively incorporated into INEPT- or HMQC-type transfer schemes in liquid state weak alignment experiments in order to increase the efficiency of the magnetization transfer. The method is applied to the sensitive detection of (1)H(N)-(13)C long-range RDCs in a three-dimensional HCN experiment. As compared to a conventional HCN experiment, an average sensitivity increase by a factor of 2.4 is obtained for a sample of weakly aligned protein G. This makes it possible to detect 170 long-range (1)H(N)-(13)C RDCs for distances up to 4.9 angstroms.

Resolution-optimized NMR measurement of (1)D(CH), (1)D(CC) and (2)D(CH) residual dipolar couplings in nucleic acid bases

New methods are described for accurate measurement of multiple residual dipolar couplings in nucleic acid bases. The methods use TROSY-type pulse sequences for optimizing resolution and sensitivity, and rely on the E.COSY principle to measure the relatively small two-bond (2)D(CH) couplings at high precision. Measurements are demonstrated for a 24-nt stem-loop RNA sequence, uniformly enriched in (13)C, and aligned in Pf1. The recently described pseudo-3D method is used to provide homonuclear (1)H-(1)H decoupling, which minimizes cross-correlation effects and optimizes resolution. Up to seven (1)H-(13)C and (13)C-(13)C couplings are measured for pyrimidines (U and C), including (1)D(C5H5), (1)D(C6H6), (2)D(C5H6), (2)D(C6H5), (1)D(C5C4), (1)D(C5C6), and (2)D(C4H5). For adenine, four base couplings ((1)D(C2H2), (1)D(C8H8), (1)D(C4C5), and (1)D(C5C6)) are readily measured whereas for guanine only three couplings are accessible at high relative accuracy ((1)D(C8H8), (1)D(C4C5), and (1)D(C5C6)). Only three dipolar couplings are linearly independent in planar structures such as nucleic acid bases, permitting cross validation of the data and evaluation of their accuracies. For the vast majority of dipolar couplings, the error is found to be less than +/-3% of their possible range, indicating that the measurement accuracy is not limiting when using these couplings as restraints in structure calculations. Reported isotropic values of the one- and two-bond J couplings cluster very tightly for each type of nucleotide.

Experiments for correlating quaternary carbons in RNA bases

The paper presents a set of triple-resonance two-dimensional experiments for correlating all quaternary carbons in RNA bases to one or more of the base protons. The experiments make use of either three-bond proton-carbon couplings and one selective INEPT step (the long-range selective HSQC experiment) to transfer the magnetization between a proton and the carbon of interest and back, or they rely on one- and/or two-bond heteronuclear (the H(CN)C and H(N)C experiments) or carbon-carbon (the H(C)C experiment) couplings and multiple INEPT transfer steps. The effect of the large one-bond carbon-carbon coupling in t(1) is removed by a constant time evolution or by a selective refocusing. The performance of the proposed approach is demonstrated on a 0.5 mM 25-mer RNA. The results show that the experiments are applicable to samples containing agents for weak molecular alignment. The design of the correlation experiments has been supported by ab initio calculations of scalar spin-spin couplings in the free bases and the AU and GC base pairs. The ab initio data reveal surprisingly high values of guanine (2)J(N1C5) and uracil (2)J(N3C5) couplings that are in a qualitative agreement with the experimental data. The sensitivity of the spin-spin couplings to base pairing as well as the agreement with the experiment depend strongly on the type of nuclei involved and the number of bonds separating them.

DNA A-tract bending in three dimensions: solving the dA4T4 vs. dT4A4 conundrum

DNA A-tracts have been defined as four or more consecutive A.T base pairs without a TpA step. When inserted in phase with the DNA helical repeat, bending is manifested macroscopically as anomalous migration on polyacrylamide gels, first observed >20 years ago. An unsolved conundrum is why DNA containing in-phase A-tract repeats of A(4)T(4) are bent, whereas T(4)A(4) is straight. We have determined the solution structures of the DNA duplexes formed by d(GCAAAATTTTGC) [A4T4] and d(CGTTTTAAAACG) [T4A4] with NH(4)(+) counterions by using NMR spectroscopy, including refinement with residual dipolar couplings. Analysis of the structures shows that the ApT step has a large negative roll, resulting in a local bend toward the minor groove, whereas the TpA step has a positive roll and locally bends toward the major groove. For A4T4, this bend is nearly in phase with bends at the two A-tract junctions, resulting in an overall bend toward the minor groove of the A-tract, whereas for T4A4, the bends oppose each other, resulting in a relatively straight helix. NMR-based structural modeling of d(CAAAATTTTG)(15) and d(GTTTTAAAAC)(15) reveals that the former forms a left-handed superhelix with a diameter of approximately 110 A and pitch of 80 A, similar to DNA in the nucleosome, whereas the latter has a gentle writhe with a pitch of >250 A and diameter of approximately 50 A. Results of gel electrophoretic mobility studies are consistent with the higher-order structure of the DNA and furthermore depend on the nature of the monovalent cation present in the running buffer.