1
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Huang T, Choi J, Prabhakar A, Puglisi JD, Petrov A. Partial spontaneous intersubunit rotations in pretranslocation ribosomes. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2114979120. [PMID: 37801472 PMCID: PMC10576065 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2114979120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 08/29/2023] [Indexed: 10/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The two main steps of translation, peptidyl transfer, and translocation are accompanied by counterclockwise and clockwise rotations of the large and small ribosomal subunits with respect to each other. Upon peptidyl transfer, the small ribosomal subunit rotates counterclockwise relative to the large subunit, placing the ribosome into the rotated conformation. Simultaneously, tRNAs move into the hybrid conformation, and the L1 stalk moves inward toward the P-site tRNA. The conformational dynamics of pretranslocation ribosomes were extensively studied by ensemble and single-molecule methods. Different experimental modalities tracking ribosomal subunits, tRNAs, and the L1 stalk showed that pretranslocation ribosomes undergo spontaneous conformational transitions. Thus, peptidyl transfer unlocks the ribosome and decreases an energy barrier for the reverse ribosome rotation during translocation. However, the tracking of translation with ribosomes labeled at rRNA helices h44 and H101 showed a lack of spontaneous rotations in pretranslocation complexes. Therefore, reverse intersubunit rotations occur during EF-G catalyzed translocation. To reconcile these views, we used high-speed single-molecule microscopy to follow translation in real time. We showed spontaneous rotations in puromycin-released h44-H101 dye-labeled ribosomes. During elongation, the h44-H101 ribosomes undergo partial spontaneous rotations. Spontaneous rotations in h44-H101-labeled ribosomes are restricted prior to aminoacyl-tRNA binding. The pretranslocation h44-H101 ribosomes spontaneously exchanged between three different rotational states. This demonstrates that peptidyl transfer unlocks spontaneous rotations and pretranslocation ribosomes can adopt several thermally accessible conformations, thus supporting the Brownian model of translocation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tianhan Huang
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL36849
| | - Junhong Choi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Arjun Prabhakar
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Joseph D. Puglisi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA94305
| | - Alexey Petrov
- Department of Biological Sciences, Auburn University, Auburn, AL36849
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2
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Höllerer S, Jeschek M. Ultradeep characterisation of translational sequence determinants refutes rare-codon hypothesis and unveils quadruplet base pairing of initiator tRNA and transcript. Nucleic Acids Res 2023; 51:2377-2396. [PMID: 36727459 PMCID: PMC10018350 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkad040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Translation is a key determinant of gene expression and an important biotechnological engineering target. In bacteria, 5'-untranslated region (5'-UTR) and coding sequence (CDS) are well-known mRNA parts controlling translation and thus cellular protein levels. However, the complex interaction of 5'-UTR and CDS has so far only been studied for few sequences leading to non-generalisable and partly contradictory conclusions. Herein, we systematically assess the dynamic translation from over 1.2 million 5'-UTR-CDS pairs in Escherichia coli to investigate their collective effect using a new method for ultradeep sequence-function mapping. This allows us to disentangle and precisely quantify effects of various sequence determinants of translation. We find that 5'-UTR and CDS individually account for 53% and 20% of variance in translation, respectively, and show conclusively that, contrary to a common hypothesis, tRNA abundance does not explain expression changes between CDSs with different synonymous codons. Moreover, the obtained large-scale data provide clear experimental evidence for a base-pairing interaction between initiator tRNA and mRNA beyond the anticodon-codon interaction, an effect that is often masked for individual sequences and therefore inaccessible to low-throughput approaches. Our study highlights the indispensability of ultradeep sequence-function mapping to accurately determine the contribution of parts and phenomena involved in gene regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Höllerer
- Department of Biosystems Science and Engineering, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology – ETH Zurich, Basel CH-4058, Switzerland
| | - Markus Jeschek
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +49 941 943 3161; Fax: +49 941 943 2403;
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3
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Iizuka R, Yamazaki H, Uemura S. Zero-mode waveguides and nanopore-based sequencing technologies accelerate single-molecule studies. Biophys Physicobiol 2022; 19:e190032. [DOI: 10.2142/biophysico.bppb-v19.0032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ryo Iizuka
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
| | - Hirohito Yamazaki
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
| | - Sotaro Uemura
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo
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4
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Samatova E, Daberger J, Liutkute M, Rodnina MV. Translational Control by Ribosome Pausing in Bacteria: How a Non-uniform Pace of Translation Affects Protein Production and Folding. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:619430. [PMID: 33505387 PMCID: PMC7829197 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.619430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein homeostasis of bacterial cells is maintained by coordinated processes of protein production, folding, and degradation. Translational efficiency of a given mRNA depends on how often the ribosomes initiate synthesis of a new polypeptide and how quickly they read the coding sequence to produce a full-length protein. The pace of ribosomes along the mRNA is not uniform: periods of rapid synthesis are separated by pauses. Here, we summarize recent evidence on how ribosome pausing affects translational efficiency and protein folding. We discuss the factors that slow down translation elongation and affect the quality of the newly synthesized protein. Ribosome pausing emerges as important factor contributing to the regulatory programs that ensure the quality of the proteome and integrate the cellular and environmental cues into regulatory circuits of the cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ekaterina Samatova
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Jan Daberger
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marija Liutkute
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Marina V Rodnina
- Department of Physical Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Biophysical Chemistry, Göttingen, Germany
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5
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Endo S, Motomura K, Tsuhako M, Kakazu Y, Nakamura M, M. Otaki J. Search for Human-Specific Proteins Based on Availability Scores of Short Constituent Sequences: Identification of a WRWSH Protein in Human Testis. Comput Biol Chem 2020. [DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.89653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about protein sequences unique in humans. Here, we performed alignment-free sequence comparisons based on the availability (frequency bias) of short constituent amino acid (aa) sequences (SCSs) in proteins to search for human-specific proteins. Focusing on 5-aa SCSs (pentats), exhaustive comparisons of availability scores among the human proteome and other nine mammalian proteomes in the nonredundant (nr) database identified a candidate protein containing WRWSH, here called FAM75, as human-specific. Examination of various human genome sequences revealed that FAM75 had genomic DNA sequences for either WRWSH or WRWSR due to a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP). FAM75 and its related protein FAM205A were found to be produced through alternative splicing. The FAM75 transcript was found only in humans, but the FAM205A transcript was also present in other mammals. In humans, both FAM75 and FAM205A were expressed specifically in testis at the mRNA level, and they were immunohistochemically located in cells in seminiferous ducts and in acrosomes in spermatids at the protein level, suggesting their possible function in sperm development and fertilization. This study highlights a practical application of SCS-based methods for protein searches and suggests possible contributions of SNP variants and alternative splicing of FAM75 to human evolution.
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6
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Nieuwkoop T, Finger-Bou M, van der Oost J, Claassens NJ. The Ongoing Quest to Crack the Genetic Code for Protein Production. Mol Cell 2020; 80:193-209. [PMID: 33010203 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2020.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2020] [Revised: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Understanding the genetic design principles that determine protein production remains a major challenge. Although the key principles of gene expression were discovered 50 years ago, additional factors are still being uncovered. Both protein-coding and non-coding sequences harbor elements that collectively influence the efficiency of protein production by modulating transcription, mRNA decay, and translation. The influences of many contributing elements are intertwined, which complicates a full understanding of the individual factors. In natural genes, a functional balance between these factors has been obtained in the course of evolution, whereas for genetic-engineering projects, our incomplete understanding still limits optimal design of synthetic genes. However, notable advances have recently been made, supported by high-throughput analysis of synthetic gene libraries as well as by state-of-the-art biomolecular techniques. We discuss here how these advances further strengthen understanding of the gene expression process and how they can be harnessed to optimize protein production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thijs Nieuwkoop
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Max Finger-Bou
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - John van der Oost
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands
| | - Nico J Claassens
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Wageningen University, Stippeneng 4, 6708 WE Wageningen, the Netherlands.
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7
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Verma M, Choi J, Cottrell KA, Lavagnino Z, Thomas EN, Pavlovic-Djuranovic S, Szczesny P, Piston DW, Zaher HS, Puglisi JD, Djuranovic S. A short translational ramp determines the efficiency of protein synthesis. Nat Commun 2019; 10:5774. [PMID: 31852903 PMCID: PMC6920384 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-019-13810-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 81] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 11/25/2019] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Translation initiation is a major rate-limiting step for protein synthesis. However, recent studies strongly suggest that the efficiency of protein synthesis is additionally regulated by multiple factors that impact the elongation phase. To assess the influence of early elongation on protein synthesis, we employed a library of more than 250,000 reporters combined with in vitro and in vivo protein expression assays. Here we report that the identity of the amino acids encoded by codons 3 to 5 impact protein yield. This effect is independent of tRNA abundance, translation initiation efficiency, or overall mRNA structure. Single-molecule measurements of translation kinetics revealed pausing of the ribosome and aborted protein synthesis on codons 4 and 5 of distinct amino acid and nucleotide compositions. Finally, introduction of preferred sequence motifs only at specific codon positions improves protein synthesis efficiency for recombinant proteins. Collectively, our data underscore the critical role of early elongation events in translational control of gene expression. Several factors contribute to the efficiency of protein expression. Here the authors show that the identity of amino acids encoded by codons at position 3–5 significantly impact translation efficiency and protein expression levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manasvi Verma
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Junhong Choi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5126, USA.,Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, 94305-5126, USA.,Department of Genome Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Kyle A Cottrell
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Zeno Lavagnino
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.,Experimental Imaging Center, IRCCS Ospedale San Raffaele, Milan, Italy
| | - Erica N Thomas
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St Louis, MO, 63105, USA
| | - Slavica Pavlovic-Djuranovic
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Pawel Szczesny
- Department of Bioinformatics, Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - David W Piston
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA
| | - Hani S Zaher
- Department of Biology, Washington University, St Louis, MO, 63105, USA
| | - Joseph D Puglisi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305-5126, USA
| | - Sergej Djuranovic
- Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 600 South Euclid Avenue, Campus Box 8228, St. Louis, MO, 63110, USA.
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8
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Moreira MH, Barros GC, Requião RD, Rossetto S, Domitrovic T, Palhano FL. From reporters to endogenous genes: the impact of the first five codons on translation efficiency in Escherichia coli. RNA Biol 2019; 16:1806-1816. [PMID: 31470761 PMCID: PMC6844562 DOI: 10.1080/15476286.2019.1661213] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Translation initiation is a critical step in the regulation of protein synthesis, and it is subjected to different control mechanisms, such as 5' UTR secondary structure and initiation codon context, that can influence the rates at which initiation and consequentially translation occur. For some genes, translation elongation also affects the rate of protein synthesis. With a GFP library containing nearly all possible combinations of nucleotides from the 3rd to the 5th codon positions in the protein coding region of the mRNA, it was previously demonstrated that some nucleotide combinations increased GFP expression up to four orders of magnitude. While it is clear that the codon region from positions 3 to 5 can influence protein expression levels of artificial constructs, its impact on endogenous proteins is still unknown. Through bioinformatics analysis, we identified the nucleotide combinations of the GFP library in Escherichia coli genes and examined the correlation between the expected levels of translation according to the GFP data with the experimental measures of protein expression. We observed that E. coli genes were enriched with the nucleotide compositions that enhanced protein expression in the GFP library, but surprisingly, it seemed to affect the translation efficiency only marginally. Nevertheless, our data indicate that different enterobacteria present similar nucleotide composition enrichment as E. coli, suggesting an evolutionary pressure towards the conservation of short translational enhancer sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariana H. Moreira
- Programa de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Géssica C. Barros
- Programa de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo D. Requião
- Programa de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Silvana Rossetto
- Departamento de Ciência da Computação, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Tatiana Domitrovic
- Departamento de Virologia, Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Góes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
| | - Fernando L. Palhano
- Programa de Biologia Estrutural, Instituto de Bioquímica Médica Leopoldo de Meis, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
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9
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Mittal A, Changani AM, Taparia S. What limits the primary sequence space of natural proteins? J Biomol Struct Dyn 2019; 38:4579-4583. [DOI: 10.1080/07391102.2019.1682051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Aditya Mittal
- Kusuma School of Biological Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi), New Delhi, India
| | | | - Sakshi Taparia
- Department of Mathematics, Bachelors Program in Mathematics & Computing, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi (IIT Delhi), New Delhi, India
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10
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Choi J, Grosely R, Prabhakar A, Lapointe CP, Wang J, Puglisi JD. How Messenger RNA and Nascent Chain Sequences Regulate Translation Elongation. Annu Rev Biochem 2018; 87:421-449. [PMID: 29925264 PMCID: PMC6594189 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-biochem-060815-014818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Translation elongation is a highly coordinated, multistep, multifactor process that ensures accurate and efficient addition of amino acids to a growing nascent-peptide chain encoded in the sequence of translated messenger RNA (mRNA). Although translation elongation is heavily regulated by external factors, there is clear evidence that mRNA and nascent-peptide sequences control elongation dynamics, determining both the sequence and structure of synthesized proteins. Advances in methods have driven experiments that revealed the basic mechanisms of elongation as well as the mechanisms of regulation by mRNA and nascent-peptide sequences. In this review, we highlight how mRNA and nascent-peptide elements manipulate the translation machinery to alter the dynamics and pathway of elongation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junhong Choi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
- Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305-4090, USA
| | - Rosslyn Grosely
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Arjun Prabhakar
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
- Program in Biophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, USA
| | - Christopher P Lapointe
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Jinfan Wang
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
| | - Joseph D Puglisi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California 94305-5126, USA; , , , , ,
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11
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Sabi R, Tuller T. Computational analysis of nascent peptides that induce ribosome stalling and their proteomic distribution in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2017; 23:983-994. [PMID: 28363900 PMCID: PMC5473148 DOI: 10.1261/rna.059188.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Interactions between the ribosomal exit tunnel and the nascent peptide can affect translation elongation rates. While previous studies have already demonstrated the feasibility of such interactions, little is known about the nature of the stalling peptide sequences and their distribution in the proteome. Here we ask which peptide sequences tend to occupy the tunnel of stalled ribosomes and how they are distributed in the proteome. Using computational analysis of ribosome profiling data from S. cerevisiae, we identified for the first time dozens of short stalling peptide sequences and studied their statistical properties. We found that short peptide sequences associated with ribosome stalling tend significantly to be either over- or underrepresented in the proteome. We then showed that the stalling interactions may occur at different positions along the length of the tunnel, prominently close to the P-site. Our findings throw light on the determinants of nascent peptide-mediated ribosome stalling during translation elongation and support the novel conjecture that mRNA translation affects the proteomic distribution of short peptide sequences.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renana Sabi
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Tamir Tuller
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel
- The Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, Ramat Aviv 69978, Israel
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12
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Prabhakar A, Choi J, Wang J, Petrov A, Puglisi JD. Dynamic basis of fidelity and speed in translation: Coordinated multistep mechanisms of elongation and termination. Protein Sci 2017; 26:1352-1362. [PMID: 28480640 DOI: 10.1002/pro.3190] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As the universal machine that transfers genetic information from RNA to protein, the ribosome synthesizes proteins with remarkably high fidelity and speed. This is a result of the accurate and efficient decoding of mRNA codons via multistep mechanisms during elongation and termination stages of translation. These mechanisms control how the correct sense codon is recognized by a tRNA for peptide elongation, how the next codon is presented to the decoding center without change of frame during translocation, and how the stop codon is discriminated for timely release of the nascent peptide. These processes occur efficiently through coupling of chemical energy expenditure, ligand interactions, and conformational changes. Understanding this coupling in detail required integration of many techniques that were developed in the past two decades. This multidisciplinary approach has revealed the dynamic nature of translational control and uncovered how external cellular factors such as tRNA abundance and mRNA modifications affect the synthesis of the protein product. Insights from these studies will aid synthetic biology and therapeutic approaches to translation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Prabhakar
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, 94305.,Program in Biophysics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305
| | - Junhong Choi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, 94305.,Department of Applied Physics, Stanford University, Stanford, California, 94305
| | - Jinfan Wang
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, 94305
| | - Alexey Petrov
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, 94305
| | - Joseph D Puglisi
- Department of Structural Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, 94305
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