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Graham JB, Swarts JL, Koehne AL, Watson CE, Lund JM. Regulatory T cells restrict immunity and pathology in distal tissue sites following a localized infection. Mucosal Immunol 2024:S1933-0219(24)00061-8. [PMID: 38908483 DOI: 10.1016/j.mucimm.2024.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2024] [Revised: 06/13/2024] [Accepted: 06/16/2024] [Indexed: 06/24/2024]
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Treg) are well-known to mediate peripheral tolerance at homeostasis, and there is growing appreciation for their role in modulating infectious disease immunity. Following acute and chronic infections, Tregs can restrict pathogen-specific T cell responses to limit immunopathology. However, it is unclear if Tregs mediate control of pathology and immunity in distal tissue sites during localized infections. We investigated a role for Tregs in immunity and disease in various tissue compartments in the context of "mild" vaginal Zika virus (ZIKV) infection. We found that Tregs are critical to generate robust virus-specific CD8 T cell responses in the initial infection site. Further, Tregs limit inflammatory cytokines and immunopathology during localized infection; a dysregulated immune response in Treg-depleted mice leads to increased T cell infiltrates and immunopathology in both the vagina and the central nervous system (CNS). Importantly, these CNS infiltrates are not present at the same magnitude during infection of Treg sufficient mice, in which there is not CNS immunopathology. Our data suggest that Tregs are necessary to generate a robust virus-specific response at the mucosal site of infection, while Treg-mediated restriction of bystander inflammation limits immunopathology both at the site of infection as well as distal tissue sites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica B Graham
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jessica L Swarts
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Amanda L Koehne
- Experimental Histopathology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Christine E Watson
- Experimental Histopathology, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Jennifer M Lund
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, USA; Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA.
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2
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Hussain T, Nguyen A, Daunt C, Thiele D, Pang ES, Li J, Zaini A, O'Keeffe M, Zaph C, Harris NL, Quinn KM, La Gruta NL. Helminth Infection-Induced Increase in Virtual Memory CD8 T Cells Is Transient, Driven by IL-15, and Absent in Aged Mice. JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2023; 210:297-309. [PMID: 36524995 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200316] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
CD8 virtual memory T (TVM) cells are Ag-naive CD8 T cells that have undergone partial differentiation in response to common γ-chain cytokines, particularly IL-15 and IL-4. TVM cells from young individuals are highly proliferative in response to TCR and cytokine stimulation but, with age, they lose TCR-mediated proliferative capacity and exhibit hallmarks of senescence. Helminth infection can drive an increase in TVM cells, which is associated with improved pathogen clearance during subsequent infectious challenge in young mice. Given the cytokine-dependent profile of TVM cells and their age-associated dysfunction, we traced proliferative and functional changes in TVM cells, compared with true naive CD8 T cells, after helminth infection of young and aged C57BL/6 mice. We show that IL-15 is essential for the helminth-induced increase in TVM cells, which is driven only by proliferation of existing TVM cells, with negligible contribution from true naive cell differentiation. Additionally, TVM cells showed the greatest proliferation in response to helminth infection and IL-15 compared with other CD8 T cells. Furthermore, TVM cells from aged mice did not undergo expansion after helminth infection due to both TVM cell-intrinsic and -extrinsic changes associated with aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tabinda Hussain
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Angela Nguyen
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Carmel Daunt
- Laboratory of Intestinal Immunology, Department of Immunology and Pathology, Central Clinical School, The Alfred Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Daniel Thiele
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ee Shan Pang
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Jasmine Li
- Sir Peter MacCallum Department of Oncology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Cancer Immunology Program, Peter MacCallum Cancer Centre, Parkville, Victoria, Australia; and
| | - Aidil Zaini
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Meredith O'Keeffe
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Colby Zaph
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nicola L Harris
- Laboratory of Intestinal Immunology, Department of Immunology and Pathology, Central Clinical School, The Alfred Centre, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kylie M Quinn
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.,School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology University, Bundoora, Victoria, Australia
| | - Nicole L La Gruta
- Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
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3
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Parga-Vidal L, van Aalderen MC, Stark R, van Gisbergen KPJM. Tissue-resident memory T cells in the urogenital tract. Nat Rev Nephrol 2022; 18:209-223. [PMID: 35079143 DOI: 10.1038/s41581-021-00525-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Our understanding of T cell memory responses changed drastically with the discovery that specialized T cell memory populations reside within peripheral tissues at key pathogen entry sites. These tissue-resident memory T (TRM) cells can respond promptly to an infection without the need for migration, proliferation or differentiation. This rapid and local deployment of effector functions maximizes the ability of TRM cells to eliminate pathogens. TRM cells do not circulate through peripheral tissues but instead form isolated populations in the skin, gut, liver, kidneys, the reproductive tract and other organs. This long-term retention in the periphery might allow TRM cells to fully adapt to the local conditions of their environment and mount customized responses to counter infection and tumour growth in a tissue-specific manner. In the urogenital tract, TRM cells must adapt to a unique microenvironment to confer protection against potential threats, including cancer and infection, while preventing the onset of auto-inflammatory disease. In this Review, we discuss insights into the diversification of TRM cells from other memory T cell lineages, the adaptations of TRM cells to their local environment, and their enhanced capacity to counter infection and tumour growth compared with other memory T cell populations, especially in the urogenital tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Loreto Parga-Vidal
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Michiel C van Aalderen
- Department of Experimental Immunology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Internal Medicine, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Regina Stark
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,Department of Experimental Immunology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.,BIH Center for Regenerative Therapies, Charité Universitätsmedizin Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Klaas P J M van Gisbergen
- Department of Hematopoiesis, Sanquin Research and Landsteiner Laboratory, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. .,Department of Experimental Immunology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam UMC, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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4
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Vick SC, Frutoso M, Mair F, Konecny AJ, Greene E, Wolf CR, Logue JK, Franko NM, Boonyaratanakornkit J, Gottardo R, Schiffer JT, Chu HY, Prlic M, Lund JM. A regulatory T cell signature distinguishes the immune landscape of COVID-19 patients from those with other respiratory infections. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabj0274. [PMID: 34757794 PMCID: PMC8580318 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abj0274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
Despite recent studies of immunity to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), little is known about how the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 differs from other respiratory infections. We compare the immune signature from hospitalized SARS-CoV-2–infected patients to patients hospitalized prepandemic with influenza or respiratory syncytial virus (RSV). Our in-depth profiling indicates that the immune landscape in SARS-CoV-2 patients is largely similar to flu or RSV patients. Unique to patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 who had the most critical clinical disease were changes in the regulatory T cell (Treg) compartment. A Treg signature including increased frequency, activation status, and migration markers was correlated COVID-19 severity. These findings are relevant as Tregs are considered for therapy to combat the severe inflammation seen in COVID-19 patients. Likewise, having defined the overlapping immune landscapes in SARS-CoV-2, existing knowledge of flu and RSV infections could be leveraged to identify common treatment strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Vick
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Marie Frutoso
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Florian Mair
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Andrew J. Konecny
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Evan Greene
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Caitlin R. Wolf
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jennifer K. Logue
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Nicholas M. Franko
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jim Boonyaratanakornkit
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Raphael Gottardo
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
| | - Joshua T. Schiffer
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Helen Y. Chu
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Martin Prlic
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Jennifer M. Lund
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109, USA
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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5
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Kuhn J, Vainchtein ID, Braz JM, Hamel K, Bernstein M, Craik V, Dahlgren MW, Ortiz-Carpena J, Molofsky A, Molofsky A, Basbaum A. Regulatory T-cells inhibit microglia-induced pain hypersensitivity in female mice. eLife 2021; 10:69056. [PMID: 34652270 PMCID: PMC8639143 DOI: 10.7554/elife.69056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Accepted: 10/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Peripheral nerve injury-induced neuropathic pain is a chronic and debilitating condition characterized by mechanical hypersensitivity. We previously identified microglial activation via release of colony-stimulating factor 1 (CSF1) from injured sensory neurons as a mechanism contributing to nerve injury-induced pain. Here, we show that intrathecal administration of CSF1, even in the absence of injury, is sufficient to induce pain behavior, but only in male mice. Transcriptional profiling and morphologic analyses after intrathecal CSF1 showed robust immune activation in male but not female microglia. CSF1 also induced marked expansion of lymphocytes within the spinal cord meninges, with preferential expansion of regulatory T-cells (Tregs) in female mice. Consistent with the hypothesis that Tregs actively suppress microglial activation in females, Treg deficient (Foxp3DTR) female mice showed increased CSF1-induced microglial activation and pain hypersensitivity equivalent to males. We conclude that sexual dimorphism in the contribution of microglia to pain results from Treg-mediated suppression of microglial activation and pain hypersensitivity in female mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kuhn
- Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Ilia D Vainchtein
- Psychiatry, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Joao M Braz
- Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Katherine Hamel
- Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Mollie Bernstein
- Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Veronica Craik
- Anatomy, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Madelene W Dahlgren
- Laboratory Medicine, University California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Jorge Ortiz-Carpena
- Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Ari Molofsky
- Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Anna Molofsky
- Laboratory Medicine, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
| | - Allan Basbaum
- Anatomy, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, United States
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6
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Kwesi-Maliepaard EM, Jacobs H, van Leeuwen F. Signals for antigen-independent differentiation of memory CD8 + T cells. Cell Mol Life Sci 2021; 78:6395-6408. [PMID: 34398252 PMCID: PMC8558200 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-021-03912-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Conventional CD8+ memory T cells develop upon stimulation with foreign antigen and provide increased protection upon re-challenge. Over the past two decades, new subsets of CD8+ T cells have been identified that acquire memory features independently of antigen exposure. These antigen-inexperienced memory T cells (TAIM) are described under several names including innate memory, virtual memory, and memory phenotype. TAIM cells exhibit characteristics of conventional or true memory cells, including antigen-specific responses. In addition, they show responsiveness to innate stimuli and have been suggested to provide additional levels of protection toward infections and cancer. Here, we discuss the current understanding of TAIM cells, focusing on extrinsic and intrinsic molecular conditions that favor their development, their molecular definitions and immunological properties, as well as their transcriptional and epigenetic regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Heinz Jacobs
- Division of Tumor Biology and Immunology, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Fred van Leeuwen
- Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, 1066CX, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
- Department of Medical Biology, Amsterdam UMC, University of Amsterdam, 1105AZ, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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7
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Vick SC, Frutoso M, Mair F, Konecny AJ, Greene E, Wolf CR, Logue JK, Boonyaratanakornkit J, Gottardo R, Schiffer JT, Chu HY, Prlic M, Lund JM. A differential regulatory T cell signature distinguishes the immune landscape of COVID-19 hospitalized patients from those hospitalized with other respiratory viral infections. MEDRXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR HEALTH SCIENCES 2021:2021.03.25.21254376. [PMID: 33791720 PMCID: PMC8010752 DOI: 10.1101/2021.03.25.21254376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
SARS-CoV-2 infection has caused a lasting global pandemic costing millions of lives and untold additional costs. Understanding the immune response to SARS-CoV-2 has been one of the main challenges in the past year in order to decipher mechanisms of host responses and interpret disease pathogenesis. Comparatively little is known in regard to how the immune response against SARS-CoV-2 differs from other respiratory infections. In our study, we compare the peripheral blood immune signature from SARS-CoV-2 infected patients to patients hospitalized pre-pandemic with Influenza Virus or Respiratory Syncytial Virus (RSV). Our in-depth profiling indicates that the immune landscape in patients infected by SARS-CoV-2 is largely similar to patients hospitalized with Flu or RSV. Similarly, serum cytokine and chemokine expression patterns were largely overlapping. Unique to patients infected with SARS-CoV-2 who had the most critical clinical disease state were changes in the regulatory T cell (Treg) compartment. A Treg signature including increased frequency, activation status, and migration markers was correlated with the severity of COVID-19 disease. These findings are particularly relevant as Tregs are being discussed as a therapy to combat the severe inflammation seen in COVID-19 patients. Likewise, having defined the overlapping immune landscapes in SARS-CoV-2, existing knowledge of Flu and RSV infections could be leveraged to identify common treatment strategies. HIGHLIGHTS The immune landscapes of hospitalized pre-pandemic RSV and influenza patients are similar to SARS-CoV-2 patientsSerum cytokine and chemokine expression patterns are largely similar between patients hospitalized with respiratory virus infections, including SARS-CoV-2, versus healthy donorsSARS-CoV-2 patients with the most critical disease displayed unique changes in the Treg compartmentadvances in understanding and treating SARS-CoV-2 could be leveraged for other common respiratory infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah C. Vick
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Marie Frutoso
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Florian Mair
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Andrew J. Konecny
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Evan Greene
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Caitlin R. Wolf
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Jennifer K. Logue
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Jim Boonyaratanakornkit
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Raphael Gottardo
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
| | - Joshua T. Schiffer
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Helen Y. Chu
- Department of Medicine, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Martin Prlic
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Immunology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Jennifer M. Lund
- Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, WA 98109
- Department of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195
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8
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Blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 Immune Checkpoints Combined with Vaccination Restores the Function of Antiviral Tissue-Resident CD8 + T RM Cells and Reduces Ocular Herpes Simplex Infection and Disease in HLA Transgenic Rabbits. J Virol 2019; 93:JVI.00827-19. [PMID: 31217250 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.00827-19] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2019] [Accepted: 06/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Chronic viruses such as herpes simplex virus 1 (HSV-1) evade the hosts' immune system by inducing the exhaustion of antiviral T cells. In the present study, we found that exhausted HSV-specific CD8+ T cells, with elevated expression of programmed death ligand-1 (PD-1) and lymphocyte activation gene-3 (LAG-3) receptors were frequent in symptomatic patients, with a history of numerous episodes of recurrent corneal herpetic disease, compared to asymptomatic patients who never had corneal herpetic disease. Subsequently, using a rabbit model of recurrent ocular herpes, we found that the combined blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 pathways with antagonist antibodies significantly restored the function of tissue-resident antiviral CD8+ TRM cells in both the cornea and the trigeminal ganglia (TG). An increased number of functional tissue-resident HSV-specific CD8+ TRM cells in latently infected rabbits was associated with protection against recurrent herpes infection and disease. Compared to the PD-1 or LAG-3 blockade alone, the combined blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 appeared to have a synergistic effect in generating frequent polyfunctional Ki-67+, IFN-γ+, CD107+, and CD8+ T cells. Moreover, using the human leukocyte antigen (HLA) transgenic rabbit model, we found that dual blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 reinforced the effect of a multiepitope vaccine in boosting the frequency of HSV-1-specific CD8+ TRM cells and reducing disease severity. Thus, both the PD-1 and the LAG-3 exhaustion pathways play a fundamental role in ocular herpes T cell immunopathology and provide important immune checkpoint targets to combat ocular herpes.IMPORTANCE HSV-specific tissue-resident memory CD8+ TRM cells play a critical role in preventing virus reactivation from latently infected TG and subsequent virus shedding in tears that trigger the recurrent corneal herpetic disease. In this report, we determined how the dual blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 immune checkpoints, combined with vaccination, improved the function of CD8+ TRM cells associated with a significant reduction in recurrent ocular herpes in HLA transgenic (Tg) rabbit model. The combined blockade of PD-1 and LAG-3 appeared to have a synergistic effect in generating frequent polyfunctional CD8+ TRM cells that infiltrated both the cornea and the TG. The preclinical findings using the established HLA Tg rabbit model of recurrent herpes highlight that blocking immune checkpoints combined with a T cell-based vaccine would provide an important strategy to combat recurrent ocular herpes in the clinic.
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