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Ning J, Sala M, Reina J, Kalagiri R, Hunter T, McCullough BS. Histidine Phosphorylation: Protein Kinases and Phosphatases. Int J Mol Sci 2024; 25:7975. [PMID: 39063217 PMCID: PMC11277029 DOI: 10.3390/ijms25147975] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2024] [Revised: 07/09/2024] [Accepted: 07/17/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Phosphohistidine (pHis) is a reversible protein post-translational modification (PTM) that is currently poorly understood. The P-N bond in pHis is heat and acid-sensitive, making it more challenging to study than the canonical phosphoamino acids pSer, pThr, and pTyr. As advancements in the development of tools to study pHis have been made, the roles of pHis in cells are slowly being revealed. To date, a handful of enzymes responsible for controlling this modification have been identified, including the histidine kinases NME1 and NME2, as well as the phosphohistidine phosphatases PHPT1, LHPP, and PGAM5. These tools have also identified the substrates of these enzymes, granting new insights into previously unknown regulatory mechanisms. Here, we discuss the cellular function of pHis and how it is regulated on known pHis-containing proteins, as well as cellular mechanisms that regulate the activity of the pHis kinases and phosphatases themselves. We further discuss the role of the pHis kinases and phosphatases as potential tumor promoters or suppressors. Finally, we give an overview of various tools and methods currently used to study pHis biology. Given their breadth of functions, unraveling the role of pHis in mammalian systems promises radical new insights into existing and unexplored areas of cell biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Ning
- Correspondence: (J.N.); (B.S.M.)
| | | | | | | | | | - Brandon S. McCullough
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA; (M.S.); (J.R.); (R.K.); (T.H.)
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Reina J, Vallmajo-Martin Q, Ning J, Michi AN, Yeung K, Wahl GM, Hunter T. LHPP expression in triple-negative breast cancer promotes tumor growth and metastasis by modulating the tumor microenvironment. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.19.590151. [PMID: 38712081 PMCID: PMC11071390 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.19.590151] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/08/2024]
Abstract
Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a highly aggressive and metastatic form of breast cancer that lacks an effective targeted therapy. To identify new therapeutic targets, we investigated the phosphohistidine phosphatase, LHPP, which has been implicated in the development of several types of cancer. However, the full significance of LHPP in cancer progression remains unclear due to our limited understanding of its molecular mechanism. We found that levels of the LHPP phosphohistidine phosphatase were significantly increased in human breast cancer patients compared to normal adjacent tissues, with the highest levels in the TNBC subtype. When LHPP was knocked out in the MDA-MB-231 human TNBC cell line, cell proliferation, wound healing capacity, and invasion were significantly reduced. However, LHPP knockout in TNBC cells did not affect the phosphohistidine protein levels. Interestingly, LHPP knockout in MDA-MB-231 cells delayed tumor growth and reduced metastasis when orthotopically transplanted into mouse mammary glands. To investigate LHPP's role in breast cancer progression, we used next-generation sequencing and proximity-labeling proteomics, and found that LHPP regulates gene expression in chemokine-mediated signaling and actin cytoskeleton organization. Depletion of LHPP reduced the presence of tumor-infiltrating macrophages in mouse xenografts. Our results uncover a new tumor promoter role for LHPP phosphohistidine phosphatase in TNBC and suggest that targeting LHPP phosphatase could be a potential therapeutic strategy for TNBC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey Reina
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | | | - Jia Ning
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Aubrey N Michi
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Kay Yeung
- Moores Cancer Center, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
- Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Geoffrey M Wahl
- Gene Expression Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
| | - Tony Hunter
- Molecular and Cell Biology Laboratory, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA
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Makwana MV, Dos Santos Souza C, Pickup BT, Thompson MJ, Lomada SK, Feng Y, Wieland T, Jackson RFW, Muimo R. Chemical Tools for Studying Phosphohistidine: Generation of Selective τ-Phosphohistidine and π-Phosphohistidine Antibodies. Chembiochem 2023; 24:e202300182. [PMID: 37183567 DOI: 10.1002/cbic.202300182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2023] [Revised: 05/11/2023] [Accepted: 05/11/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Nonhydrolysable stable analogues of τ-phosphohistidine (τ-pHis) and π-pHis have been designed, aided by electrostatic surface potential calculations, and subsequently synthesized. The τ-pHis and π-pHis analogues (phosphopyrazole 8 and pyridyl amino amide 13, respectively) were used as haptens to generate pHis polyclonal antibodies. Both τ-pHis and π-pHis conjugates in the form of BSA-glutaraldehyde-τ-pHis and BSA-glutaraldehyde-π-pHis were synthesized and characterized by 31 P NMR spectroscopy. Commercially available τ-pHis (SC56-2) and π-pHis (SC1-1; SC50-3) monoclonal antibodies were used to show that the BSA-G-τ-pHis and BSA-G-π-pHis conjugates could be used to assess the selectivity of pHis antibodies in a competitive ELISA. Subsequently, the selectivity of the pHis antibodies generated by using phosphopyrazole 8 and pyridyl amino amide 13 as haptens was assessed by competitive ELISA against His, pSer, pThr, pTyr, τ-pHis and π-pHis. Antibodies generated by using phosphopyrazole 8 as a hapten were found to be selective for τ-pHis, and antibodies generated by using pyridyl amino amide 13 were found to be selective for π-pHis. Both τ- and π-pHis antibodies were shown to be effective in immunological experiments, including ELISA, western blot, and immunofluorescence. The τ-pHis antibody was also shown to be useful in the immunoprecipitation of proteins containing pHis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mehul V Makwana
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, S3 7HF, UK
- Department of Infection Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, Medical School, The University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Road, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
| | - Cleide Dos Santos Souza
- Sheffield Instituate of Translational Neuroscience, The University of Sheffield, 385a Glossop Road, Sheffield, S10 2HQ, UK
| | - Barry T Pickup
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, S3 7HF, UK
| | - Mark J Thompson
- Department of Oncology and Metabolism, Medical School, The University Of Sheffield, Beech Hill Road, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
| | - Santosh K Lomada
- Experimental Pharmacology, European Center of Angioscience, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Yuxi Feng
- Experimental Pharmacology, European Center of Angioscience, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Thomas Wieland
- Experimental Pharmacology, European Center of Angioscience, Medical Faculty Mannheim, Heidelberg University, 68167, Mannheim, Germany
| | - Richard F W Jackson
- Department of Chemistry, The University of Sheffield, Brook Hill, Sheffield, S3 7HF, UK
| | - Richmond Muimo
- Department of Infection Immunity and Cardiovascular Disease, Medical School, The University of Sheffield, Beech Hill Road, Sheffield, S10 2RX, UK
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Zhao J, Zhuang M, Liu J, Zhang M, Zeng C, Jiang B, Wu J, Song X. pHisPred: a tool for the identification of histidine phosphorylation sites by integrating amino acid patterns and properties. BMC Bioinformatics 2022; 23:399. [PMID: 36171552 PMCID: PMC9520798 DOI: 10.1186/s12859-022-04938-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2022] [Accepted: 09/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Protein histidine phosphorylation (pHis) plays critical roles in prokaryotic signal transduction pathways and various eukaryotic cellular processes. It is estimated to account for 6–10% of the phosphoproteome, however only hundreds of pHis sites have been discovered to date. Due to the inherent disadvantages of experimental methods, it is an urgent task for developing efficient computational approaches to identify pHis sites. Results Here, we present a novel tool, pHisPred, for accurately identifying pHis sites from protein sequences. We manually collected the largest number of experimental validated pHis sites to build benchmark datasets. Using randomized tenfold CV, the weighted SVM-RBF model shows the best performance than other four commonly used classification models (LR, KNN, RF, and MLP). From ten thousands of features, 140 and 150 most informative features were individually selected out for eukaryotic and prokaryotic models. The average AUC and F1-score values of pHisPred were (0.81, 0.40) and (0.78, 0.46) for tenfold CV on the eukaryotic and prokaryotic training datasets, respectively. In addition, pHisPred significantly outperforms other tools on testing datasets, in particular on the eukaryotic one. Conclusion We implemented a python program of pHisPred, which is freely available for non-commercial use at https://github.com/xiaofengsong/pHisPred. Moreover, users can use it to train new models with their own data. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12859-022-04938-x.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Zhao
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Minhui Zhuang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Jingjing Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Meng Zhang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Cong Zeng
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China
| | - Bin Jiang
- College of Automation Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 211106, China
| | - Jing Wu
- School of Biomedical Engineering and Informatics, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166, China.
| | - Xiaofeng Song
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Nanjing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Nanjing, 210016, China.
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Hu Y, Jiang B. Selective enrichment tandem β-elimination assisted strategy for N-phosphorylation analysis. Talanta 2022; 247:123580. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/20/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Hunter T. A journey from phosphotyrosine to phosphohistidine and beyond. Mol Cell 2022; 82:2190-2200. [PMID: 35654043 DOI: 10.1016/j.molcel.2022.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/05/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation is a reversible post-translational modification. Nine of the 20 natural amino acids in proteins can be phosphorylated, but most of what we know about the roles of protein phosphorylation has come from studies of serine, threonine, and tyrosine phosphorylation. Much less is understood about the phosphorylation of histidine, lysine, arginine, cysteine, aspartate, and glutamate, so-called non-canonical phosphorylations. Phosphohistidine (pHis) was discovered 60 years ago as a mitochondrial enzyme intermediate; since then, evidence for the existence of histidine kinases and phosphohistidine phosphatases has emerged, together with examples where protein function is regulated by reversible histidine phosphorylation. pHis is chemically unstable and has thus been challenging to study. However, the recent development of tools for studying pHis has accelerated our understanding of the multifaceted functions of histidine phosphorylation, revealing a large number of proteins that are phosphorylated on histidine and implicating pHis in a wide range of cellular processes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Hunter
- Molecular Cell Biology, Salk Institute for Biological Studies, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
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Hintzen JCJ, Ma H, Deng H, Witecka A, Andersen SB, Drozak J, Guo H, Qian P, Li H, Mecinović J. Histidine methyltransferase
SETD3
methylates structurally diverse histidine mimics in actin. Protein Sci 2022; 31:e4305. [PMID: 35481649 PMCID: PMC9004244 DOI: 10.1002/pro.4305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Actin histidine Nτ‐methylation by histidine methyltransferase SETD3 plays an important role in human biology and diseases. Here, we report integrated synthetic, biocatalytic, biostructural, and computational analyses on human SETD3‐catalyzed methylation of actin peptides possessing histidine and its structurally and chemically diverse mimics. Our enzyme assays supported by biostructural analyses demonstrate that SETD3 has a broader substrate scope beyond histidine, including N‐nucleophiles on the aromatic and aliphatic side chains. Quantum mechanical/molecular mechanical molecular dynamics and free‐energy simulations provide insight into binding geometries and the free energy barrier for the enzymatic methyl transfer to histidine mimics, further supporting experimental data that histidine is the superior SETD3 substrate over its analogs. This work demonstrates that human SETD3 has a potential to catalyze efficient methylation of several histidine mimics, overall providing mechanistic, biocatalytic, and functional insight into actin histidine methylation by SETD3. PDB Code(s): 7W28 and 7W29
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordi C. J. Hintzen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy University of Southern Denmark Odense Denmark
| | - Huida Ma
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Medicine, Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Tsinghua University Beijing China
| | - Hao Deng
- Chemistry and Materials Science Faculty Shandong Agricultural University Tai'an Shandong China
| | - Apolonia Witecka
- Department of Metabolic Regulation, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Steffen B. Andersen
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy University of Southern Denmark Odense Denmark
| | - Jakub Drozak
- Department of Metabolic Regulation, Faculty of Biology University of Warsaw Warsaw Poland
| | - Hong Guo
- Department of Biochemistry and Cellular and Molecular Biology University of Tennessee Knoxville Tennessee USA
- UT/ORNL Center for Molecular Biophysics Oak Ridge National Laboratory Oak Ridge Tennessee USA
| | - Ping Qian
- Chemistry and Materials Science Faculty Shandong Agricultural University Tai'an Shandong China
| | - Haitao Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Protein Sciences, Beijing Frontier Research Center for Biological Structure, School of Medicine, Tsinghua‐Peking Center for Life Sciences Tsinghua University Beijing China
| | - Jasmin Mecinović
- Department of Physics, Chemistry and Pharmacy University of Southern Denmark Odense Denmark
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Zn(II)-DPA functionalized graphene oxide two-dimensional nanocomposites for N-phosphoproteins enrichment. Talanta 2022; 243:123384. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Revised: 03/07/2022] [Accepted: 03/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
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Rom JS, Hart MT, McIver KS. PRD-Containing Virulence Regulators (PCVRs) in Pathogenic Bacteria. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2021; 11:772874. [PMID: 34737980 PMCID: PMC8560693 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2021.772874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 10/04/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens rely on a complex network of regulatory proteins to adapt to hostile and nutrient-limiting host environments. The phosphoenolpyruvate phosphotransferase system (PTS) is a conserved pathway in bacteria that couples transport of sugars with phosphorylation to monitor host carbohydrate availability. A family of structurally homologous PTS-regulatory-domain-containing virulence regulators (PCVRs) has been recognized in divergent bacterial pathogens, including Streptococcus pyogenes Mga and Bacillus anthracis AtxA. These paradigm PCVRs undergo phosphorylation, potentially via the PTS, which impacts their dimerization and their activity. Recent work with predicted PCVRs from Streptococcus pneumoniae (MgaSpn) and Enterococcus faecalis (MafR) suggest they interact with DNA like nucleoid-associating proteins. Yet, Mga binds to promoter sequences as a homo-dimeric transcription factor, suggesting a bi-modal interaction with DNA. High-resolution crystal structures of 3 PCVRs have validated the domain structure, but also raised additional questions such as how ubiquitous are PCVRs, is PTS-mediated histidine phosphorylation via potential PCVRs widespread, do specific sugars signal through PCVRs, and do PCVRs interact with DNA both as transcription factors and nucleoid-associating proteins? Here, we will review known and putative PCVRs based on key domain and functional characteristics and consider their roles as both transcription factors and possibly chromatin-structuring proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joseph S Rom
- Cell Biology & Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Meaghan T Hart
- Cell Biology & Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
| | - Kevin S McIver
- Cell Biology & Molecular Genetics, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States.,Maryland Pathogen Research Institute, University of Maryland, College Park, MD, United States
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The many ways that nature has exploited the unusual structural and chemical properties of phosphohistidine for use in proteins. Biochem J 2021; 478:3575-3596. [PMID: 34624072 DOI: 10.1042/bcj20210533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Histidine phosphorylation is an important and ubiquitous post-translational modification. Histidine undergoes phosphorylation on either of the nitrogens in its imidazole side chain, giving rise to 1- and 3- phosphohistidine (pHis) isomers, each having a phosphoramidate linkage that is labile at high temperatures and low pH, in contrast with stable phosphomonoester protein modifications. While all organisms routinely use pHis as an enzyme intermediate, prokaryotes, lower eukaryotes and plants also use it for signal transduction. However, research to uncover additional roles for pHis in higher eukaryotes is still at a nascent stage. Since the discovery of pHis in 1962, progress in this field has been relatively slow, in part due to a lack of the tools and techniques necessary to study this labile modification. However, in the past ten years the development of phosphoproteomic techniques to detect phosphohistidine (pHis), and methods to synthesize stable pHis analogues, which enabled the development of anti-phosphohistidine (pHis) antibodies, have accelerated our understanding. Recent studies that employed anti-pHis antibodies and other advanced techniques have contributed to a rapid expansion in our knowledge of histidine phosphorylation. In this review, we examine the varied roles of pHis-containing proteins from a chemical and structural perspective, and present an overview of recent developments in pHis proteomics and antibody development.
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Mathis CL, Barrios AM. Histidine phosphorylation in metalloprotein binding sites. J Inorg Biochem 2021; 225:111606. [PMID: 34555600 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2021.111606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 09/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Post-translational modifications (PTMs) are invaluable regulatory tools for the control of catalytic functionality, protein-protein interactions, and signaling pathways. Historically, the study of phosphorylation as a PTM has been focused on serine, threonine, and tyrosine residues. In contrast, the significance of mammalian histidine phosphorylation remains largely unexplored. This gap in knowledge regarding the molecular basis for histidine phosphorylation as a regulatory agent exists in part because of the relative instability of phosphorylated histidine as compared with phosphorylated serine, threonine and tyrosine. However, the unique metal binding abilities of histidine make it one of the most common metal coordinating ligands in nature, and it is interesting to consider how phosphorylation would change the metal coordinating ability of histidine, and consequently, the properties of the phosphorylated metalloprotein. In this review, we examine eleven metalloproteins that have been shown to undergo reversible histidine phosphorylation at or near their metal binding sites. These proteins are described with respect to their biological activity and structure, with a particular emphasis on how phosphohistidine may tune the primary coordination sphere and protein conformation. Furthermore, several common methods, challenges, and limitations of studying sensitive, high affinity metalloproteins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheryl L Mathis
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States
| | - Amy M Barrios
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112, United States.
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12
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Jakobsson ME. Enzymology and significance of protein histidine methylation. J Biol Chem 2021; 297:101130. [PMID: 34461099 PMCID: PMC8446795 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2021.101130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Revised: 08/23/2021] [Accepted: 08/26/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Cells synthesize proteins using 20 standard amino acids and expand their biochemical repertoire through intricate enzyme-mediated post-translational modifications (PTMs). PTMs can either be static and represent protein editing events or be dynamically regulated as a part of a cellular response to specific stimuli. Protein histidine methylation (Hme) was an elusive PTM for over 5 decades and has only recently attracted considerable attention through discoveries concerning its enzymology, extent, and function. Here, we review the status of the Hme field and discuss the implications of Hme in physiological and cellular processes. We also review the experimental toolbox for analysis of Hme and discuss the strengths and weaknesses of different experimental approaches. The findings discussed in this review demonstrate that Hme is widespread across cells and tissues and functionally regulates key cellular processes such as cytoskeletal dynamics and protein translation. Collectively, the findings discussed here showcase Hme as a regulator of key cellular functions and highlight the regulation of this modification as an emerging field of biological research.
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