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Kravets VG, Clark TK. An experimentally informed computational model of neurovestibular adaptation to altered gravity. Exp Physiol 2024. [PMID: 38625533 DOI: 10.1113/ep091817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2024] [Accepted: 03/27/2024] [Indexed: 04/17/2024]
Abstract
Transitions to altered gravity environments result in acute sensorimotor impairment for astronauts, leading to serious mission and safety risks in the crucial first moments in a new setting. Our understanding of the time course and severity of impairment in the early stages of adaptation remains limited and confounded by unmonitored head movements, which are likely to impact the rate of adaptation. Here, we aimed to address this gap by using a human centrifuge to simulate the first hour of hypergravity (1.5g) exposure and the subsequent 1g readaptation period, with precisely controlled head tilt activity. We quantified head tilt overestimation via subjective visual vertical and found ∼30% tilt overestimation that did not decrease over the course of 1 h of exposure to the simulated gravity environment. These findings extended the floor of the vestibular adaptation window (with controlled vestibular cueing) to 1 h of exposure to altered gravity. We then used the empirical data to inform a computational model of neurovestibular adaptation to changes in the magnitude of gravity, which can offer insight into the adaptation process and, with further tuning, can be used to predict the temporal dynamics of vestibular-mediated misperceptions in altered gravity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Victoria G Kravets
- Ann and H.J. Smead Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
| | - Torin K Clark
- Ann and H.J. Smead Department of Aerospace Engineering Sciences, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA
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2
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Mohammadi M, Carriot J, Mackrous I, Cullen KE, Chacron MJ. Neural populations within macaque early vestibular pathways are adapted to encode natural self-motion. PLoS Biol 2024; 22:e3002623. [PMID: 38687807 PMCID: PMC11086886 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pbio.3002623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2023] [Revised: 05/10/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/02/2024] Open
Abstract
How the activities of large neural populations are integrated in the brain to ensure accurate perception and behavior remains a central problem in systems neuroscience. Here, we investigated population coding of naturalistic self-motion by neurons within early vestibular pathways in rhesus macaques (Macacca mulatta). While vestibular neurons displayed similar dynamic tuning to self-motion, inspection of their spike trains revealed significant heterogeneity. Further analysis revealed that, during natural but not artificial stimulation, heterogeneity resulted primarily from variability across neurons as opposed to trial-to-trial variability. Interestingly, vestibular neurons displayed different correlation structures during naturalistic and artificial self-motion. Specifically, while correlations due to the stimulus (i.e., signal correlations) did not differ, correlations between the trial-to-trial variabilities of neural responses (i.e., noise correlations) were instead significantly positive during naturalistic but not artificial stimulation. Using computational modeling, we show that positive noise correlations during naturalistic stimulation benefits information transmission by heterogeneous vestibular neural populations. Taken together, our results provide evidence that neurons within early vestibular pathways are adapted to the statistics of natural self-motion stimuli at the population level. We suggest that similar adaptations will be found in other systems and species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mohammadi
- Department of Biological and Biomedical Engineering, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Jerome Carriot
- Department of Physiology, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | | | - Kathleen E. Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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3
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Fitze DC, Mast FW, Ertl M. Human vestibular perceptual thresholds - A systematic review of passive motion perception. Gait Posture 2024; 107:83-95. [PMID: 37778297 DOI: 10.1016/j.gaitpost.2023.09.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2022] [Revised: 09/12/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The vestibular system detects head accelerations within 6 degrees of freedom. How well this is accomplished is described by vestibular perceptual thresholds. They are a measure of perceptual performance based on the conscious evaluation of sensory information. This review provides an integrative synthesis of the vestibular perceptual thresholds reported in the literature. The focus lies on the estimation of thresholds in healthy participants, used devices and stimulus profiles. The dependence of these thresholds on the participants clinical status and age is also reviewed. Furthermore, thresholds from primate studies are discussed. RESULTS Thresholds have been measured for frequencies ranging from 0.05 to 5 Hz. They decrease with increasing frequency for five of the six main degrees of freedom (inter-aural, head-vertical, naso-occipital, yaw, pitch). No consistent pattern is evident for roll rotations. For a frequency range beyond 5 Hz, a U-shaped relationship is suggested by a qualitative comparison to primate data. Where enough data is available, increasing thresholds with age and higher thresholds in patients compared to healthy controls can be observed. No effects related to gender or handedness are reported. SIGNIFICANCE Vestibular thresholds are essential for next generation screening tools in the clinical domain, for the assessment of athletic performance, and workplace safety alike. Knowledge about vestibular perceptual thresholds contributes to basic and applied research in fields such as perception, cognition, learning, and healthy aging. This review provides normative values for vestibular thresholds. Gaps in current knowledge are highlighted and attention is drawn to specific issues for improving the inter-study comparability in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Fitze
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Fabrikstrasse 8, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Fred W Mast
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Fabrikstrasse 8, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
| | - Matthias Ertl
- Department of Psychology, University of Bern, Fabrikstrasse 8, 3012, Bern, Switzerland.
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Sertic JVL, Fall N, Konczak J. A Physically Active Lifestyle Can Protect against Age-Related Decline in Ankle Proprioception. J Mot Behav 2023; 56:305-314. [PMID: 38097196 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2023.2293003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
This study examined whether physically active middle-aged (50-64 years) and older adults (65-80 years) demonstrate age-related ankle proprioceptive decline relative to younger counterparts. Empirical data indicate that ankle proprioception declines with aging and such sensory decline negatively affects balance. Using a passive motion apparatus, we employed a psychophysical forced-choice paradigm in which the ankle was passively plantarflexed to a reference position (15° or 25°) and a comparison position that was always smaller than the reference. Subsequently, participants indicated which position was more plantarflexed. As outcome measures of ankle position sense acuity, a just-noticeable-difference (JND) threshold and the uncertainty area (UA) were derived from the psychometric stimulus-response difference function for each participant. The JND threshold is a measure of proprioceptive bias and UA constitutes a measure of precision. The main results are: First, at the 15° reference, most middle-aged (74%) and older adults (71%) had thresholds within the range of the young adults. The respective median JND threshold of young adults was statistically lower when compared to both older groups. Second, no differences between age groups were observed at the 25° reference. Third, no age-related differences were found for UA at either reference. These data indicate that physically active aging adults may be spared from age-related decline in ankle position sense and that age-related differences emerge for small ankle displacements. The findings underscore the importance of remaining active during aging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacquelyn V L Sertic
- Human Sensorimotor Control Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Center for Clinical Movement Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Nicole Fall
- Human Sensorimotor Control Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Jürgen Konczak
- Human Sensorimotor Control Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
- Center for Clinical Movement Science, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
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Jerjian SJ, Harsch DR, Fetsch CR. Self-motion perception and sequential decision-making: where are we heading? Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2023; 378:20220333. [PMID: 37545301 PMCID: PMC10404932 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2022.0333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2023] [Accepted: 06/18/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
To navigate and guide adaptive behaviour in a dynamic environment, animals must accurately estimate their own motion relative to the external world. This is a fundamentally multisensory process involving integration of visual, vestibular and kinesthetic inputs. Ideal observer models, paired with careful neurophysiological investigation, helped to reveal how visual and vestibular signals are combined to support perception of linear self-motion direction, or heading. Recent work has extended these findings by emphasizing the dimension of time, both with regard to stimulus dynamics and the trade-off between speed and accuracy. Both time and certainty-i.e. the degree of confidence in a multisensory decision-are essential to the ecological goals of the system: terminating a decision process is necessary for timely action, and predicting one's accuracy is critical for making multiple decisions in a sequence, as in navigation. Here, we summarize a leading model for multisensory decision-making, then show how the model can be extended to study confidence in heading discrimination. Lastly, we preview ongoing efforts to bridge self-motion perception and navigation per se, including closed-loop virtual reality and active self-motion. The design of unconstrained, ethologically inspired tasks, accompanied by large-scale neural recordings, raise promise for a deeper understanding of spatial perception and decision-making in the behaving animal. This article is part of the theme issue 'Decision and control processes in multisensory perception'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven J. Jerjian
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Zanvyl Krieger Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
| | - Devin R. Harsch
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Zanvyl Krieger Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
- Center for Neuroscience and Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Christopher R. Fetsch
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Zanvyl Krieger Mind/Brain Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA
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Lacquaniti F, La Scaleia B, Zago M. Noise and vestibular perception of passive self-motion. Front Neurol 2023; 14:1159242. [PMID: 37181550 PMCID: PMC10169592 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2023.1159242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Noise defined as random disturbances is ubiquitous in both the external environment and the nervous system. Depending on the context, noise can degrade or improve information processing and performance. In all cases, it contributes to neural systems dynamics. We review some effects of various sources of noise on the neural processing of self-motion signals at different stages of the vestibular pathways and the resulting perceptual responses. Hair cells in the inner ear reduce the impact of noise by means of mechanical and neural filtering. Hair cells synapse on regular and irregular afferents. Variability of discharge (noise) is low in regular afferents and high in irregular units. The high variability of irregular units provides information about the envelope of naturalistic head motion stimuli. A subset of neurons in the vestibular nuclei and thalamus are optimally tuned to noisy motion stimuli that reproduce the statistics of naturalistic head movements. In the thalamus, variability of neural discharge increases with increasing motion amplitude but saturates at high amplitudes, accounting for behavioral violation of Weber's law. In general, the precision of individual vestibular neurons in encoding head motion is worse than the perceptual precision measured behaviorally. However, the global precision predicted by neural population codes matches the high behavioral precision. The latter is estimated by means of psychometric functions for detection or discrimination of whole-body displacements. Vestibular motion thresholds (inverse of precision) reflect the contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic noise to perception. Vestibular motion thresholds tend to deteriorate progressively after the age of 40 years, possibly due to oxidative stress resulting from high discharge rates and metabolic loads of vestibular afferents. In the elderly, vestibular thresholds correlate with postural stability: the higher the threshold, the greater is the postural imbalance and risk of falling. Experimental application of optimal levels of either galvanic noise or whole-body oscillations can ameliorate vestibular function with a mechanism reminiscent of stochastic resonance. Assessment of vestibular thresholds is diagnostic in several types of vestibulopathies, and vestibular stimulation might be useful in vestibular rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Lacquaniti
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Department of Systems Medicine, Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Barbara La Scaleia
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
| | - Myrka Zago
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Santa Lucia Foundation, Rome, Italy
- Department of Civil Engineering and Computer Science Engineering, Centre of Space Bio-medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
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Sinnott CB, Hausamann PA, MacNeilage PR. Natural statistics of human head orientation constrain models of vestibular processing. Sci Rep 2023; 13:5882. [PMID: 37041176 PMCID: PMC10090077 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-32794-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2022] [Accepted: 04/02/2023] [Indexed: 04/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Head orientation relative to gravity determines how gravity-dependent environmental structure is sampled by the visual system, as well as how gravity itself is sampled by the vestibular system. Therefore, both visual and vestibular sensory processing should be shaped by the statistics of head orientation relative to gravity. Here we report the statistics of human head orientation during unconstrained natural activities in humans for the first time, and we explore implications for models of vestibular processing. We find that the distribution of head pitch is more variable than head roll and that the head pitch distribution is asymmetrical with an over-representation of downward head pitch, consistent with ground-looking behavior. We further suggest that pitch and roll distributions can be used as empirical priors in a Bayesian framework to explain previously measured biases in perception of both roll and pitch. Gravitational and inertial acceleration stimulate the otoliths in an equivalent manner, so we also analyze the dynamics of human head orientation to better understand how knowledge of these dynamics can constrain solutions to the problem of gravitoinertial ambiguity. Gravitational acceleration dominates at low frequencies and inertial acceleration dominates at higher frequencies. The change in relative power of gravitational and inertial components as a function of frequency places empirical constraints on dynamic models of vestibular processing, including both frequency segregation and probabilistic internal model accounts. We conclude with a discussion of methodological considerations and scientific and applied domains that will benefit from continued measurement and analysis of natural head movements moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Peter A Hausamann
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Technical University of Munich, 80333, Munich, Germany
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8
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La Scaleia B, Lacquaniti F, Zago M. Enhancement of Vestibular Motion Discrimination by Small Stochastic Whole-body Perturbations in Young Healthy Humans. Neuroscience 2023; 510:32-48. [PMID: 36535577 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2022.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation has been shown to improve vestibular perception in healthy subjects. Here, we sought to obtain similar results using more natural stimuli consisting of small-amplitude motion perturbations of the whole body. Thirty participants were asked to report the perceived direction of antero-posterior sinusoidal motion on a MOOG platform. We compared the baseline perceptual thresholds with those obtained by applying small, stochastic perturbations at different power levels along the antero-posterior axis, symmetrically distributed around a zero-mean. At the population level, we found that the thresholds for all but the highest level of noise were significantly lower than the baseline threshold. At the individual level, the threshold was lower with at least one noise level than the threshold without noise in 87% of participants. Thus, small, stochastic oscillations of the whole body can increase the probability of recognizing the direction of motion from low, normally subthreshold vestibular signals, possibly due to stochastic resonance mechanisms. We suggest that, just as the external noise of the present experiments, also the spontaneous random oscillations of the head and body associated with standing posture are beneficial by enhancing vestibular thresholds with a mechanism similar to stochastic resonance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara La Scaleia
- Laboratory of Visuomotor Control and Gravitational Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy.
| | - Francesco Lacquaniti
- Laboratory of Neuromotor Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy.
| | - Myrka Zago
- Laboratory of Visuomotor Control and Gravitational Physiology, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, 00179 Rome, Italy; Department of Civil Engineering and Computer Science Engineering and Center of Space Biomedicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, 00133 Rome, Italy.
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Sinnott C, Hausamann PA, MacNeilage PR. Natural statistics of human head orientation constrain models of vestibular processing. RESEARCH SQUARE 2023:rs.3.rs-2412413. [PMID: 36711500 PMCID: PMC9882651 DOI: 10.21203/rs.3.rs-2412413/v1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Head orientation relative to gravity determines how gravity-dependent environmental structure is sampled by the visual system, as well as how gravity itself is sampled by the vestibular system. Therefore, both visual and vestibular sensory processing should be shaped by the statistics of head orientation relative to gravity. Here we report the statistics of human head orientation during unconstrained natural activities in humans for the first time, and we explore implications for models of vestibular processing. We find that the distribution of head pitch is more variable than head roll and that the head pitch distribution is asymmetrical with an over-representation of downward head pitch, consistent with ground-looking behavior. We further show that pitch and roll distributions can be used as empirical priors in a Bayesian framework to explain previously measured biases in perception of both roll and pitch. We also analyze the dynamics of human head orientation to better understand how gravitational and inertial acceleration are processed by the vestibular system. Gravitational acceleration dominates at low frequencies and inertial acceleration dominates at higher frequencies. The change in relative power of gravitational and inertial components as a function of frequency places empirical constraints on dynamic models of vestibular processing. We conclude with a discussion of methodological considerations and scientific and applied domains that will benefit from continued measurement and analysis of natural head movements moving forward.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Sinnott
- University of Nevada, Department of Psychology, Reno, 89557, United States of America,
| | - Peter A. Hausamann
- Technical University of Munich, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Munich, 80333, Germany
| | - Paul R. MacNeilage
- University of Nevada, Department of Psychology, Reno, 89557, United States of America
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10
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Cullen KE, Chacron MJ. Neural substrates of perception in the vestibular thalamus during natural self-motion: A review. CURRENT RESEARCH IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2023; 4:100073. [PMID: 36926598 PMCID: PMC10011815 DOI: 10.1016/j.crneur.2023.100073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2022] [Revised: 12/01/2022] [Accepted: 01/03/2023] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence across multiple sensory modalities suggests that the thalamus does not simply relay information from the periphery to the cortex. Here we review recent findings showing that vestibular neurons within the ventral posteriolateral area of the thalamus perform nonlinear transformations on their afferent input that determine our subjective awareness of motion. Specifically, these neurons provide a substrate for previous psychophysical observations that perceptual discrimination thresholds are much better than predictions from Weber's law. This is because neural discrimination thresholds, which are determined from both variability and sensitivity, initially increase but then saturate with increasing stimulus amplitude, thereby matching the previously observed dependency of perceptual self-motion discrimination thresholds. Moreover, neural response dynamics give rise to unambiguous and optimized encoding of natural but not artificial stimuli. Finally, vestibular thalamic neurons selectively encode passively applied motion when occurring concurrently with voluntary (i.e., active) movements. Taken together, these results show that the vestibular thalamus plays an essential role towards generating motion perception as well as shaping our vestibular sense of agency that is not simply inherited from afferent input.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathleen E Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
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Carriot J, McAllister G, Hooshangnejad H, Mackrous I, Cullen KE, Chacron MJ. Sensory adaptation mediates efficient and unambiguous encoding of natural stimuli by vestibular thalamocortical pathways. Nat Commun 2022; 13:2612. [PMID: 35551186 PMCID: PMC9098492 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30348-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Sensory systems must continuously adapt to optimally encode stimuli encountered within the natural environment. The prevailing view is that such optimal coding comes at the cost of increased ambiguity, yet to date, prior studies have focused on artificial stimuli. Accordingly, here we investigated whether such a trade-off between optimality and ambiguity exists in the encoding of natural stimuli in the vestibular system. We recorded vestibular nuclei and their target vestibular thalamocortical neurons during naturalistic and artificial self-motion stimulation. Surprisingly, we found no trade-off between optimality and ambiguity. Using computational methods, we demonstrate that thalamocortical neural adaptation in the form of contrast gain control actually reduces coding ambiguity without compromising the optimality of coding under naturalistic but not artificial stimulation. Thus, taken together, our results challenge the common wisdom that adaptation leads to ambiguity and instead suggest an essential role in underlying unambiguous optimized encoding of natural stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome Carriot
- Department of Physiology, McGill University, Montréal, Canada
| | | | - Hamed Hooshangnejad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
| | | | - Kathleen E Cullen
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, USA.,Kavli Neuroscience Discovery Institute, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, USA
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