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Tamburini D, Fulcher K, Briggs L, von Aderkas N, Pulak C, Stacey R. Advances in the characterisation and identification of mastic ( Pistacia sp.) resin in archaeological samples by GC-QToF-MS. RSC Adv 2024; 14:836-854. [PMID: 38174260 PMCID: PMC10759165 DOI: 10.1039/d3ra06651g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/17/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2024] Open
Abstract
The optimisation and application of an analytical method based on gas chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC-QToF-MS) is proposed for the first time for the characterisation and identification of mastic (Pistacia sp.) resin in archaeological samples. The GC-QToF-MS method demonstrated higher sensitivity compared to single quadrupole GC-MS and enabled enhanced structural elucidation power to be exploited, particularly due to the high mass resolution and accuracy, the possibility to use standard and low ionisation energies as well as its tandem MS capabilities. The heat-induced degradation of the resin was also studied in open air conditions, showing that 28-norolean-17-en-3-one forms upon heating, but then progressively degrades. This makes it a reliable marker for heating of Pistacia resin; however, the lack of detection does not imply that the resin was not heated. These observations were used to interpret the results of a large number of archaeological samples containing Pistacia resin in different formulations, from various archaeological contexts and exposed to different environmental conditions. Lumps of relatively pure resin found in marine waterlogged conditions (Uluburun shipwreck, Turkey), residues on ceramics from Sai Island (Nubia, Sudan) as well as varnish and coating layers on Egyptian coffins from the collections of the British Museum (London, UK) and Fitzwilliam Museum (Cambridge, UK) were analysed to understand what the molecular profiles reveal about the use of the resin. The results showed that the resin was often mixed with a drying or semi-drying oil in ancient varnish formulations, thus suggesting that oil was used as a medium to dissolve the resin, which would have been impossible to apply as a layer using simple heat. These new observations significantly add to our understanding of ancient Egyptian technology and provide museum scientists and conservators with key information to accurately identify Pistacia resin and preserve objects containing it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Tamburini
- Department of Scientific Research, The British Museum Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG UK
| | - Kate Fulcher
- Department of Scientific Research, The British Museum Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG UK
| | - Lisa Briggs
- Department of Scientific Research, The British Museum Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG UK
| | - Nelly von Aderkas
- Department of Scientific Research, The British Museum Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG UK
| | - Cemal Pulak
- Department of Anthropology, Institute of Nautical Archaeology at Texas A&M University, Texas A&M University College Station Texas USA
| | - Rebecca Stacey
- Department of Scientific Research, The British Museum Great Russell Street London WC1B 3DG UK
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Huber B, Hammann S, Loeben CE, Jha DK, Vassão DG, Larsen T, Spengler RN, Fuller DQ, Roberts P, Devièse T, Boivin N. Biomolecular characterization of 3500-year-old ancient Egyptian mummification balms from the Valley of the Kings. Sci Rep 2023; 13:12477. [PMID: 37652925 PMCID: PMC10471619 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-023-39393-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Accepted: 07/25/2023] [Indexed: 09/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian mummification was practiced for nearly 4000 years as a key feature of some of the most complex mortuary practices documented in the archaeological record. Embalming, the preservation of the body and organs of the deceased for the afterlife, was a central component of the Egyptian mummification process. Here, we combine GC-MS, HT-GC-MS, and LC-MS/MS analyses to examine mummification balms excavated more than a century ago by Howard Carter from Tomb KV42 in the Valley of the Kings. Balm residues were scraped from now empty canopic jars that once contained the mummified organs of the noble lady Senetnay, dating to the 18th dynasty, ca. 1450 BCE. Our analysis revealed balms consisting of beeswax, plant oil, fats, bitumen, Pinaceae resins, a balsamic substance, and dammar or Pistacia tree resin. These are the richest, most complex balms yet identified for this early time period and they shed light on balm ingredients for which there is limited information in Egyptian textual sources. They highlight both the exceptional status of Senetnay and the myriad trade connections of the Egyptians in the 2nd millennium BCE. They further illustrate the excellent preservation possible even for organic remains long removed from their original archaeological context.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Huber
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- Institute for Archaeological Sciences, Eberhard Karl University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - S Hammann
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Friedrich-Alexander Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - C E Loeben
- Egyptian and Islamic Collections, Museum August Kestner, Hannover, Germany
| | - D K Jha
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D G Vassão
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Department of Biochemistry, Max Planck Institute for Chemical Ecology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Larsen
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - R N Spengler
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- Domestication and Anthropogenic Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - D Q Fuller
- Institute of Archaeology, University College London, London, UK
| | - P Roberts
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
- isoTROPIC Research Group, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany
| | - T Devièse
- Centre Européen de Recherche et d'Enseignement des Géosciences de l'Environnement (CEREGE), Aix Marseille University, Aix-en-Provence, France
| | - N Boivin
- Department of Archaeology, Max Planck Institute of Geoanthropology, Jena, Germany.
- School of Social Science, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia.
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Lemos R, Fulcher K, Abdllatief I, Werkström L, Hocker E. Reshaping Egyptian funerary ritual in colonized Nubia? Organic characterization of unguents from mortuary contexts of the New Kingdom (c. 1550-1070 BCE). ARCHAEOLOGICAL AND ANTHROPOLOGICAL SCIENCES 2023; 15:73. [PMID: 37181044 PMCID: PMC10167172 DOI: 10.1007/s12520-023-01769-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
Samples taken from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, chief of Tehkhet (Debeira), Lower Nubia, and local versions of Egyptian canopic jars from Sai, Upper Nubia, suggest that the materials used for mortuary ritual unguents in Nubia may have differed from those used in Egypt. Nubian samples consisted of plant gum and bitumen, whereas those from Egypt conformed to the standardizing black resinous liquid recipe used for mummification and other funerary rituals. However, there may be time frame issues to be considered as most samples analyzed from Egypt date to later periods. A standard black funerary liquid was used at Amara West, Upper Nubia, probably poured over a wrapped body, which might suggest that the gum and bitumen mixture was reserved for filling canopic jars, perhaps indicating that the use of canopic jars in Nubia differed from their use in Egypt. Evidence from the canopic jars of Djehutyhotep, local versions of canopic jars from Sai, and the sample from Amara West also indicate a source of bitumen that was not the Dead Sea, which was the main (although not only) source used in Egypt. The new results from the analysis of the Djehutyhotep canopic jars and previously published results from Sai point towards alternative ritual practices associated with local conceptions and uses of canopic jars in colonized Nubia. These samples and data from Amara West further reveal that the bitumen used in mortuary contexts in Nubia originated elsewhere than bitumen used in Egypt, which might have implications for our understanding of colonized Nubia as part of other trade networks independently from Egypt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rennan Lemos
- Department of Archaeology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge, CB23DZ UK
| | - Kate Fulcher
- Department of Scientific Research, British Museum, London, UK
| | | | | | - Emma Hocker
- Gustavianum, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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Ikram S. Recipes and ingredients for ancient Egyptian mummification. Nature 2023; 614:229-230. [PMID: 36725938 DOI: 10.1038/d41586-023-00094-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
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Rageot M, Hussein RB, Beck S, Altmann-Wendling V, Ibrahim MIM, Bahgat MM, Yousef AM, Mittelstaedt K, Filippi JJ, Buckley S, Spiteri C, Stockhammer PW. Biomolecular analyses enable new insights into ancient Egyptian embalming. Nature 2023; 614:287-293. [PMID: 36725928 PMCID: PMC9908542 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05663-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability of the ancient Egyptians to preserve the human body through embalming has not only fascinated people since antiquity, but also has always raised the question of how this outstanding chemical and ritual process was practically achieved. Here we integrate archaeological, philological and organic residue analyses, shedding new light on the practice and economy of embalming in ancient Egypt. We analysed the organic contents of 31 ceramic vessels recovered from a 26th Dynasty embalming workshop at Saqqara1,2. These vessels were labelled according to their content and/or use, enabling us to correlate organic substances with their Egyptian names and specific embalming practices. We identified specific mixtures of fragrant or antiseptic oils, tars and resins that were used to embalm the head and treat the wrappings using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analyses. Our study of the Saqqara workshop extends interpretations from a micro-level analysis highlighting the socio-economic status of a tomb owner3-7 to macro-level interpretations of the society. The identification of non-local organic substances enables the reconstruction of trade networks that provided ancient Egyptian embalmers with the substances required for mummification. This extensive demand for foreign products promoted trade both within the Mediterranean8-10 (for example, Pistacia and conifer by-products) and with tropical forest regions (for example, dammar and elemi). Additionally, we show that at Saqqara, antiu and sefet-well known from ancient texts and usually translated as 'myrrh' or 'incense'11-13 and 'a sacred oil'13,14-refer to a coniferous oils-or-tars-based mixture and an unguent with plant additives, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Rageot
- Institute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany. .,Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Ramadan B. Hussein
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Egyptology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Susanne Beck
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Egyptology, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Victoria Altmann-Wendling
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany ,grid.8379.50000 0001 1958 8658Department of Egyptology, Julius-Maximilians University, Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Mohammed I. M. Ibrahim
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157The Central Laboratories Network, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud M. Bahgat
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157The Central Laboratories Network, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M. Yousef
- grid.419725.c0000 0001 2151 8157Packaging Materials Department, the National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Katja Mittelstaedt
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | | | - Stephen Buckley
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany ,grid.5685.e0000 0004 1936 9668BioArCh, University of York, York, UK
| | - Cynthianne Spiteri
- grid.10392.390000 0001 2190 1447Department of Pre- and Protohistory, Eberhard Karls University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany ,grid.7605.40000 0001 2336 6580Department of Life Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Philipp W. Stockhammer
- grid.5252.00000 0004 1936 973XInstitute for Pre- and Protohistoric Archaeology and Archaeology of the Roman Provinces, Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich, Munich, Germany ,grid.419518.00000 0001 2159 1813Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, Leipzig, Germany
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Dutoit CE, Binet L, Vezin H, Anduze O, Lattuati-Derieux A, Gourier D. Insight into the structure of black coatings of ancient Egyptian mummies by advanced electron magnetic resonance of vanadyl complexes. MAGNETIC RESONANCE (GOTTINGEN, GERMANY) 2022; 3:111-124. [PMID: 37904866 PMCID: PMC10539842 DOI: 10.5194/mr-3-111-2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2022] [Accepted: 06/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2023]
Abstract
Ancient Egyptian mummies from the Late Period to the Greco-Roman Period were covered by a black coating consisting of complex and heterogeneous mixtures of conifer resins, wax, fat and oil with variable amounts of bitumen. Natural bitumen always contains traces of vanadyl porphyrin complexes that we used here as internal probes to explore the nanoscale environment of V4 + ions in these black coatings by electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) and hyperfine sub-level correlation spectroscopy (HYSCORE). Four types of vanadyl porphyrin complexes were identified from the analysis of 14 N hyperfine interactions. Three types (referred to as VO-P1, VO-P2 and VO-P3) are present in natural bitumen from the Dead Sea, among which VO-P1 and VO-P2 are also present in black coatings of mummies. The absence of VO-P3 in mummies, which is replaced by another complex, VO-P4, may be due to its transformation during preparation of the black matter for embalming. Analysis of 1 H hyperfine interaction shows that bitumen and other natural substances are intimately mixed in these black coatings, with aggregate sizes of bitumen increasing with the bitumen content but not exceeding a few nanometres.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charles E. Dutoit
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Laurent Binet
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Hervé Vezin
- Université de Lille, CNRS, UMR8516-LASIRE, 59000 Lille, France
| | - Océane Anduze
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
| | - Agnès Lattuati-Derieux
- Centre de Recherche et de Restauration des Musées de France
(C2RMF), Palais du Louvre, 75001 Paris, France
| | - Didier Gourier
- Chimie-ParisTech, PSL University, CNRS, Institut de Recherche de
Chimie-Paris (IRCP), 75005 Paris, France
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Chemical Modification of Biomarkers through Accelerated Degradation: Implications for Ancient Plant Identification in Archaeo-Organic Residues. Molecules 2022; 27:molecules27103331. [PMID: 35630808 PMCID: PMC9145360 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27103331] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2022] [Revised: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Biochemical and biomolecular archaeology is increasingly used to elucidate the consumption, use, origin, and trade of plants in the past. However, it can be challenging to use biomarkers to identify the taxonomic origin of archaeological plants due to limited knowledge of molecular survival and degradation for many key plant compounds in archaeological contexts. To gain a fundamental understanding of the chemical alterations associated with chemical degradation processes in ancient samples, we conducted accelerated degradation experiments with essential oil derived from cedar (Cedrus atlantica) exposed to materials commonly found in the archaeological record. Using GC-MS and multivariate analysis, we detected a total of 102 compounds across 19 treatments that were classified into three groups. The first group comprised compounds that were abundant in fresh cedar oil but would be unlikely to remain in ancient residues due to rapid degradation. The second group consisted of compounds that remained relatively stable or increased over time, which could be potential biomarkers for identifying cedar in archaeological residues. Compounds in the third group were absent in fresh cedar oil but were formed during specific experiments that could be indicative for certain storage conditions. These results show that caution is warranted for applying biomolecular profiles of fresh plants to ancient samples and that carefully designed accelerated degradation experiments can, at least in part, overcome this limitation.
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Marković M, Mezzatesta E, Porcier S, Vieillescazes C, Mathe C. Rethinking the Process of Animal Mummification in Ancient Egypt: Molecular Characterization of Embalming Material and the Use of Brassicaceae Seed Oil in the Mummification of Gazelle Mummies from Kom Mereh, Egypt. MOLECULES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 27:molecules27051532. [PMID: 35268632 PMCID: PMC8912108 DOI: 10.3390/molecules27051532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2022] [Accepted: 02/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The study of animal mummification in ancient Egypt has recently received increasing attention from a number of modern scholars given the fact that this part of ancient Egyptian funerary and religious history is a practice yet to be fully understood. In this study, nine samples of embalming matter were extracted from six gazelle mummies from the archaeological site of Kom Mereh (modern village of Komir), dated to the Roman period of dominance in ancient Egypt. All samples were analyzed for the presence of inorganic and organic matter applying a multi-analytical approach based on Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Furthermore, in order to identify more specific compounds such as bitumen and beeswax in studied balms, each sample was subjected to a solid phase extraction (SPE) and saponification separation process, respectively. The results of this study revealed that the majority of the analyzed embalming substances sampled from six gazelle mummies from Kom Mereh were complex mixtures of plant oils, animal fats, conifer resin, and beeswax. In this regard, this study was able to report a practice until now unmentioned in the scientific literature, namely, the use of cruciferous oil, derived from seeds of Brassicaceae plants, in animal mummification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Milan Marković
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.M.); Tel.: +33-490-144-454 (C.M.)
| | - Elodie Mezzatesta
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
| | - Stéphanie Porcier
- ASM, Archéologie des Sociétés Méditerranéennes, UMR5140, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Universités Paul Valéry, MCC (Ministère de la Culture et de la Communication), INRAP (Institut National de Recherches en Archéologie Préventive), CEDEX 5, F-34090 Montpellier, France;
| | - Cathy Vieillescazes
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
| | - Carole Mathe
- IMBE UMR 7263, IRD237, Avignon University/CNRS/IRD/Aix-Marseille University, Restoration Engineering of Natural and Cultural Heritage, Faculty of Sciences, Campus Jean-Henri Fabre, 301 rue Baruch de Spinoza BP 21239, CEDEX 9, 84916 Avignon, France; (E.M.); (C.V.)
- Correspondence: (M.M.); (C.M.); Tel.: +33-490-144-454 (C.M.)
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