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Pinchiaroli J, Saldanha R, Patteson AE, Robertson-Anderson RM, Gurmessa BJ. Switchable microscale stress response of actin-vimentin composites emerges from scale-dependent interactions. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.06.07.597906. [PMID: 38895280 PMCID: PMC11185688 DOI: 10.1101/2024.06.07.597906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
The mechanical properties of the mammalian cell regulate many cellular functions and are largely dictated by the cytoskeleton, a composite network of protein filaments, including actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments. Interactions between these distinct filaments give rise to emergent mechanical properties that are difficult to generate synthetically, and recent studies have made great strides in advancing our understanding of the mechanical interplay between actin and microtubule filaments. While intermediate filaments play critical roles in the stress response of cells, their effect on the rheological properties of the composite cytoskeleton remains poorly understood. Here, we use optical tweezers microrheology to measure the linear viscoelastic properties and nonlinear stress response of composites of actin and vimentin with varying molar ratios of actin to vimentin. We reveal a surprising, nearly opposite effect of actin-vimentin network mechanics compared to single-component networks in the linear versus nonlinear regimes. Namely, the linear elastic plateau modulus and zero-shear viscosity are markedly reduced in composites compared to single-component networks of actin or vimentin, whereas the initial response force and stiffness are maximized in composites versus single-component networks in the nonlinear regime. While these emergent trends are indicative of distinct interactions between actin and vimentin, nonlinear stiffening and longtime stress response appear to both be dictated primarily by actin, at odds with previous bulk rheology studies. We demonstrate that these complex, scale-dependent effects arise from the varied contributions of network density, filament stiffness, non-specific interactions, and poroelasticity to the mechanical response at different spatiotemporal scales. Cells may harness this complex behavior to facilitate distinct stress responses at different scales and in response to different stimuli to allow for their hallmark multifunctionality.
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Conboy JP, Istúriz Petitjean I, van der Net A, Koenderink GH. How cytoskeletal crosstalk makes cells move: Bridging cell-free and cell studies. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2024; 5:021307. [PMID: 38840976 PMCID: PMC11151447 DOI: 10.1063/5.0198119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2024] [Accepted: 05/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
Cell migration is a fundamental process for life and is highly dependent on the dynamical and mechanical properties of the cytoskeleton. Intensive physical and biochemical crosstalk among actin, microtubules, and intermediate filaments ensures their coordination to facilitate and enable migration. In this review, we discuss the different mechanical aspects that govern cell migration and provide, for each mechanical aspect, a novel perspective by juxtaposing two complementary approaches to the biophysical study of cytoskeletal crosstalk: live-cell studies (often referred to as top-down studies) and cell-free studies (often referred to as bottom-up studies). We summarize the main findings from both experimental approaches, and we provide our perspective on bridging the two perspectives to address the open questions of how cytoskeletal crosstalk governs cell migration and makes cells move.
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Affiliation(s)
- James P. Conboy
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Irene Istúriz Petitjean
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Anouk van der Net
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
| | - Gijsje H. Koenderink
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology, 2629 HZ Delft, The Netherlands
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3
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Illig M, Jahnke K, Weise LP, Scheffold M, Mersdorf U, Drechsler H, Zhang Y, Diez S, Kierfeld J, Göpfrich K. Triggered contraction of self-assembled micron-scale DNA nanotube rings. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2307. [PMID: 38485920 PMCID: PMC10940629 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-46339-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/18/2024] Open
Abstract
Contractile rings are formed from cytoskeletal filaments during cell division. Ring formation is induced by specific crosslinkers, while contraction is typically associated with motor protein activity. Here, we engineer DNA nanotubes and peptide-functionalized starPEG constructs as synthetic crosslinkers to mimic this process. The crosslinker induces bundling of ten to hundred DNA nanotubes into closed micron-scale rings in a one-pot self-assembly process yielding several thousand rings per microliter. Molecular dynamics simulations reproduce the detailed architectural properties of the DNA rings observed in electron microscopy. Theory and simulations predict DNA ring contraction - without motor proteins - providing mechanistic insights into the parameter space relevant for efficient nanotube sliding. In agreement between simulation and experiment, we obtain ring contraction to less than half of the initial ring diameter. DNA-based contractile rings hold promise for an artificial division machinery or contractile muscle-like materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maja Illig
- Center for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 329, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Biophysical Engineering Group, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kevin Jahnke
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Biophysical Engineering Group, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
- Harvard University, School of Engineering and Applied Sciences (SEAS), 9 Oxford Street, 02138, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Lukas P Weise
- TU Dortmund University, Department of Physics, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4, 44221, Dortmund, Germany
| | - Marlene Scheffold
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Biophysical Engineering Group, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Mersdorf
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Biophysical Engineering Group, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Hauke Drechsler
- B CUBE - Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Tatzberg 41, 01307, Dresden, Germany
- Tübingen University, Center for Plant Molecular Biology (ZMBP), Auf der Morgenstelle 32, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Yixin Zhang
- B CUBE - Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Tatzberg 41, 01307, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stefan Diez
- B CUBE - Center for Molecular Bioengineering and Cluster of Excellence Physics of Life, Technische Universität Dresden, Tatzberg 41, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Pfotenhauerstrasse 108, 01307, Dresden, Germany.
| | - Jan Kierfeld
- TU Dortmund University, Department of Physics, Otto-Hahn-Str. 4, 44221, Dortmund, Germany.
| | - Kerstin Göpfrich
- Center for Molecular Biology of Heidelberg University (ZMBH), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 329, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
- Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Biophysical Engineering Group, Jahnstraße 29, 69120, Heidelberg, Germany.
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4
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Nietmann P, Kaub K, Suchenko A, Stenz S, Warnecke C, Balasubramanian MK, Janshoff A. Cytosolic actin isoforms form networks with different rheological properties that indicate specific biological function. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7989. [PMID: 38042893 PMCID: PMC10693642 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43653-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The implications of the existence of different actins expressed in epithelial cells for network mechanics and dynamics is investigated by microrheology and confocal imaging. γ-actin predominately found in the apical cortex forms stiffer networks compared to β-actin, which is preferentially organized in stress fibers. We attribute this to selective interactions with Mg2+-ions interconnecting the filaments' N-termini. Bundling propensity of the isoforms is different in the presence of Mg2+-ions, while crosslinkers such as α-actinin, fascin, and heavy meromyosin alter the mechanical response independent of the isoform. In the presence of myosin, β-actin networks show a large number of small contraction foci, while γ-actin displays larger but fewer foci indicative of a stronger interaction with myosin motors. We infer that subtle changes in the amino acid sequence of actin isoforms lead to alterations of the mechanical properties on the network level with potential implications for specific biological functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Nietmann
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Tammannstr. 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Kevin Kaub
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Tammannstr. 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany
| | - Andrejus Suchenko
- Warwick Medical School, University of Warwick, Coventry, CV4 7AL, UK
| | - Susanne Stenz
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Tammannstr. 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | - Claas Warnecke
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Tammannstr. 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany
| | | | - Andreas Janshoff
- Institute of Physical Chemistry, University of Goettingen, Tammannstr. 6, Göttingen, 37077, Germany.
- Max Planck School Matter to Life, Max Planck Institute for Medical Research, Jahnstr. 29, Heidelberg, 69120, Germany.
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5
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Rölleke U, Kumari P, Meyer R, Köster S. The unique biomechanics of intermediate filaments - From single filaments to cells and tissues. Curr Opin Cell Biol 2023; 85:102263. [PMID: 37871499 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceb.2023.102263] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/25/2023]
Abstract
Together with actin filaments and microtubules, intermediate filaments (IFs) constitute the eukaryotic cytoskeleton and each of the three filament types contributes very distinct mechanical properties to this intracellular biopolymer network. IFs assemble hierarchically, rather than polymerizing from nuclei of a small number of monomers or dimers, as is the case with actin filaments and microtubules, respectively. This pathway leads to a molecular architecture specific to IFs and intriguing mechanical and dynamic properties: they are the most flexible cytoskeletal filaments and extremely extensible. Moreover, IFs are very stable against disassembly. Thus, they contribute important properties to cell mechanics, which recently have been investigated with state-of-the-art experimental and computational methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ulrike Rölleke
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Göttingen, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Göttingen, Germany
| | - Pallavi Kumari
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Ruth Meyer
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sarah Köster
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Göttingen, Germany; German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Göttingen, Germany; Cluster of Excellence "Multiscale Bioimaging: From Molecular Machines to Networks of Excitable Cells" (MBExC), University of Göttingen, Germany.
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6
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Sorichetti V, Lenz M. Transverse Fluctuations Control the Assembly of Semiflexible Filaments. PHYSICAL REVIEW LETTERS 2023; 131:228401. [PMID: 38101392 DOI: 10.1103/physrevlett.131.228401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 12/17/2023]
Abstract
The kinetics of the assembly of semiflexible filaments through end-to-end annealing is key to the structure of the cytoskeleton, but is not understood. We analyze this problem through scaling theory and simulations, and uncover a regime where filaments' ends find each other through bending fluctuations without the need for the whole filament to diffuse. This results in a very substantial speedup of assembly in physiological regimes, and could help with understanding the dynamics of actin and intermediate filaments in biological processes such as wound healing and cell division.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Sorichetti
- Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
- Laboratoire de Physique Théorique et Modèles Statistiques (LPTMS), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91405 Orsay, France
| | - Martin Lenz
- Laboratoire de Physique Théorique et Modèles Statistiques (LPTMS), CNRS, Université Paris-Saclay, F-91405 Orsay, France
- PMMH, CNRS, ESPCI Paris, PSL University, Sorbonne Université, Université de Paris, F-75005 Paris, France
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7
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Hao M, Guan Z, Zhang Z, Ai H, Peng X, Zhou H, Xu J, Gu Q. Atractylodinol prevents pulmonary fibrosis through inhibiting TGF-β receptor 1 recycling by stabilizing vimentin. Mol Ther 2023; 31:3015-3033. [PMID: 37641404 PMCID: PMC10556230 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2023.08.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Pirfenidone and nintedanib are only anti-pulmonary fibrosis (PF) drugs approved by the FDA. However, they are not target specific, and unable to modify the disease status. Therefore, it is still desirable to discover more effective agents against PF. Vimentin (VIM) plays key roles in tissue regeneration and wound healing, but its molecular mechanism remains unknown. In this work, we demonstrated that atractylodinol (ATD) significantly inhibits TGF-β1-induced epithelial-mesenchymal transition and fibroblast-to-myofibroblast transition in vitro. ATD also reduces bleomycin-induced lung injury and fibrosis in mice models. Mechanistically, ATD inhibited TGF-β receptor I recycling by binding to VIM (KD = 454 nM) and inducing the formation of filamentous aggregates. In conclusion, we proved that ATD (derived from Atractylodes lancea) modified PF by targeting VIM and inhibiting the TGF-β/Smad signaling pathway. Therefore, VIM is a druggable target and ATD is a proper drug candidate against PF. We prove a novel VIM function that TGF-β receptor I recycling. These findings paved the way to develop new targeted therapeutics against PF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mengjiao Hao
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; Tea Research Institute, Guangdong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Guangdong Key Laboratory of Tea Resources Innovation & Utilization, Guangzhou 510640, China
| | - Zhuoji Guan
- The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou 510405, China
| | - Zhikang Zhang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Haopeng Ai
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Xing Peng
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Huihao Zhou
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China
| | - Jun Xu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China.
| | - Qiong Gu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou 510006, China; State Key Laboratory of Phytochemistry and Plant Resources in West China, Kunming Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Kunming 650201, China.
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8
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Kraxner J, Köster S. Influence of phosphorylation on intermediate filaments. Biol Chem 2023; 404:821-827. [PMID: 37074314 PMCID: PMC10506380 DOI: 10.1515/hsz-2023-0140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/20/2023]
Abstract
The cytoskeleton of eukaryotes consists of actin filaments, microtubules and intermediate filaments (IF). IFs, in particular, are prone to pronounced phosphorylation, leading to additional charges on the affected amino acids. In recent years, a variety of experiments employing either reconstituted protein systems or living cells have revealed that these altered charge patterns form the basis for a number of very diverse cellular functions and processes, including reversible filament assembly, filament softening, network remodeling, cell migration, interactions with other protein structures, and biochemical signaling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kraxner
- Max Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine, Robert-Rössle-Straße 10, D-13125 Berlin, Germany
- German Centre for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Berlin, D-10785 Berlin, Germany
| | - Sarah Köster
- University of Göttingen, Institute for X-Ray Physics, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, D-37077 Göttingen, Germany
- German Center for Cardiovascular Research (DZHK), Partner Site Göttingen, D-37075 Göttingen, Germany
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9
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Lorenz C, Köster S. Multiscale architecture: Mechanics of composite cytoskeletal networks. BIOPHYSICS REVIEWS 2022; 3:031304. [PMID: 38505277 PMCID: PMC10903411 DOI: 10.1063/5.0099405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 03/21/2024]
Abstract
Different types of biological cells respond differently to mechanical stresses, and these responses are mainly governed by the cytoskeleton. The main components of this biopolymer network are actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments, whose mechanical and dynamic properties are highly distinct, thus opening up a large mechanical parameter space. Aside from experiments on whole, living cells, "bottom-up" approaches, utilizing purified, reconstituted protein systems, tremendously help to shed light on the complex mechanics of cytoskeletal networks. Such experiments are relevant in at least three aspects: (i) from a fundamental point of view, cytoskeletal networks provide a perfect model system for polymer physics; (ii) in materials science and "synthetic cell" approaches, one goal is to fully understand properties of cellular materials and reconstitute them in synthetic systems; (iii) many diseases are associated with cell mechanics, so a thorough understanding of the underlying phenomena may help solving pressing biomedical questions. In this review, we discuss the work on networks consisting of one, two, or all three types of filaments, entangled or cross-linked, and consider active elements such as molecular motors and dynamically growing filaments. Interestingly, tuning the interactions among the different filament types results in emergent network properties. We discuss current experimental challenges, such as the comparability of different studies, and recent methodological advances concerning the quantification of attractive forces between filaments and their influence on network mechanics.
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Affiliation(s)
- C. Lorenz
- Institute for X-Ray Physics, University of Göttingen, Friedrich-Hund-Platz 1, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
| | - S. Köster
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed:
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10
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Verwei HN, Lee G, Leech G, Petitjean II, Koenderink GH, Robertson-Anderson RM, McGorty RJ. Quantifying Cytoskeleton Dynamics Using Differential Dynamic Microscopy. J Vis Exp 2022:10.3791/63931. [PMID: 35781524 PMCID: PMC10398790 DOI: 10.3791/63931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Cells can crawl, self-heal, and tune their stiffness due to their remarkably dynamic cytoskeleton. As such, reconstituting networks of cytoskeletal biopolymers may lead to a host of active and adaptable materials. However, engineering such materials with precisely tuned properties requires measuring how the dynamics depend on the network composition and synthesis methods. Quantifying such dynamics is challenged by variations across the time, space, and formulation space of composite networks. The protocol here describes how the Fourier analysis technique, differential dynamic microscopy (DDM), can quantify the dynamics of biopolymer networks and is particularly well suited for studies of cytoskeleton networks. DDM works on time sequences of images acquired using a range of microscopy modalities, including laser-scanning confocal, widefield fluorescence, and brightfield imaging. From such image sequences, one can extract characteristic decorrelation times of density fluctuations across a span of wave vectors. A user-friendly, open-source Python package to perform DDM analysis is also developed. With this package, one can measure the dynamics of labeled cytoskeleton components or of embedded tracer particles, as demonstrated here with data of intermediate filament (vimentin) networks and active actin-microtubule networks. Users with no prior programming or image processing experience will be able to perform DDM using this software package and associated documentation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah N Verwei
- Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Biophysics, Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Utrecht University
| | - Gloria Lee
- Department of Physics and Biophysics, University of San Diego
| | - Gregor Leech
- Department of Physics and Biophysics, University of San Diego
| | - Irene Istúriz Petitjean
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology
| | - Gijsje H Koenderink
- Department of Bionanoscience, Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of Technology
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11
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Fluorescence microscopic imaging of single desmin intermediate filaments elongated by the presence of divalent cations in vitro. Biophys Chem 2022; 287:106839. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2022.106839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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12
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Lorenz C, Schepers AV, Köster S. Quantifying the Interaction Strength Between Biopolymers. Methods Mol Biol 2022; 2478:701-723. [PMID: 36063339 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-2229-2_25] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The cytoskeleton consists of three types of biopolymers-actin filaments, microtubules, and intermediate filaments-and the interplay between these components is essential for many cellular functions such as cell migration, mitosis, and the mechanical response to external cues. In the cell, the interactions between the filaments are mediated by a myriad of cross-linkers and motor proteins; however, direct forces, mediated by electrostatics or hydrophobicity, may also play an important role. Here, we provide experimental protocols and approaches for analysis and modeling for studying the interactions between either two individual vimentin intermediate filaments or between a vimentin intermediate filament and a microtubule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Charlotta Lorenz
- University of Göttingen, Institute for X-Ray Physics, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Anna V Schepers
- University of Göttingen, Institute for X-Ray Physics, Göttingen, Germany
| | - Sarah Köster
- University of Göttingen, Institute for X-Ray Physics, Göttingen, Germany.
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