Transformations in methane hydrates

Growth Kinetics and Porous Structure of Surfactant-Promoted Gas Hydrate

Surfactants present in tiny amounts in the aqueous phase are known to be efficient gas hydrate promoters; yet, the promotion mechanisms are still not fully understood. Understanding and directing those mechanisms is key to the implementation of gas-hydrate-based applications such as gas storage and separation, secondary refrigeration or water treatment, and desalination. In this work, the growth at the water/gas interface and the porous structure of surfactant-promoted methane hydrate are observed by optical microscopy and Raman imaging in glass capillaries used as optical cells. Hollow crystals are continuously generated and expelled from the methane/water meniscus into the water or surfactant solution, where they ultimately form the skeleton of a porous medium filled with the solution. Unprecedented information is gathered over a range of scales from the molecular scale (crystal structure and cage filling) to the mesoscale (crystal morphologies, growth habits and pore sizes) and macroscale (rates and amounts of water and gas converted into hydrate and hydrate porosity). Following an early steady-state growth regime, a sudden order-of-magnitude increase of the conversion rate occurs, which is related to gaseous methane microbubbles being directly incorporated across the meniscus in the aqueous solution and later converted to methane hydrate. An assessment and comparison are made of the mechanisms and performance of two common anionic surfactants known to be efficient gas hydrate promoters, SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and AOT (dioctylsulfosuccinate sodium or AerosolOcTyl). AOT provides a quicker but more limited conversion into hydrate than SDS, suggesting that it is more appropriate for continuous flow processes while SDS is better suited for gas storage applications. Raman spectra reveal that cage filling by methane of structure I methane hydrate is not affected by surfactants.

Molecular Origins of Deformation in Amorphous Methane Hydrates

Water and methane can stay together under low temperature and high pressure in the forms of liquid solutions and crystalline solids. From liquid and gaseous states to crystalline solids or the contrary processes, amorphous methane hydrates can occur in these evolution scenarios. Herein, mechanical properties of amorphous methane hydrates are explored for the first time to bridge the gap between mechanical responses of monocrystalline and polycrystalline methane hydrates. Our results demonstrate that mechanical properties of amorphous methane hydrates are strongly governed by our original proposed order parameter, namely, normalized hydrogen-bond directional order parameter. Followed by this important achievement, a multistep deformation mechanism core is proposed to explain mechanical properties of amorphous methane hydrates. Through an extensive detailed analysis of amorphous methane hydrates, our simulation results not only greatly enlarge our fundamental understanding for mechanical responses of amorphous methane hydrates in geological systems but also offer a fresh perspective in structure-property topics of solid materials in future science and technology.

Diamond formation from methane hydrate under the internal conditions of giant icy planets

Hydrocarbon chemistry in the C–O–H system at high pressure and high temperature is important for modelling the internal structure and evolution of giant icy planets, such as Uranus and Neptune, as their interiors are thought to be mainly composed of water and methane. In particular, the formation of diamond from the simplest hydrocarbon, i.e., methane, under the internal conditions of these planets has been discussed for nearly 40 years. Here, we demonstrate the formation of diamond from methane hydrate up to 3800 K and 45 GPa using a CO₂ laser-heated diamond anvil cell combined with synchrotron X-ray diffraction, Raman spectroscopy, and scanning electron microscopy observations. The results show that the process of dissociation and polymerisation of methane molecules to produce heavier hydrocarbons while releasing hydrogen to ultimately form diamond proceeds at milder temperatures (~ 1600 K) and pressures (13–45 GPa) in the C–O–H system than in the C–H system due to the influence of water. Our findings suggest that diamond formation can also occur in the upper parts of the icy mantles of giant icy planets.

Effect of Ammonia on Methane Hydrate Stability under High-Pressure and High-Temperature Conditions

High-pressure experiments were conducted to investigate the stability and phase transition of methane hydrate (MH) in the water-methane-ammonia system at room-to-high temperatures employing Raman spectroscopy and synchrotron X-ray powder diffraction, in combination with an externally heated diamond anvil cell. The results revealed that, at room temperature, MH undergoes phase transitions from MH-I to MH-II at ∼1.0 GPa and from MH-II to MH-III at ∼2.0 GPa. These transition behaviors are consistent with those in the water-methane system, which indicates that ammonia has a negligible effect on a series of phase transitions of MH. Contrarily, a sequential in situ Raman spectroscopy revealed that ammonia affects the stability of MH-III under high pressure and high temperature: the dissociation temperature of MH-III was more than 10 K lower in the water-methane-ammonia system than in the water-methane system. These findings aid in improving the internal structural models of icy bodies and estimating the origin of their atmospheric methane.

A new high-pressure cell for systematic in situ investigations of micro-scale processes in gas hydrates using confocal micro-Raman spectroscopy

Natural gas hydrates are ice-like solids composed of gas and water molecules. They are found worldwide at all continental margins as well as in permafrost regions. Depending on the source of the enclathrated gas molecules, natural gas hydrates may occur as coexisting phases with different structures containing predominantly CH₄, but also a variety of hydrocarbons, CO₂ or H₂S. For a better understanding of these complex hydrate formation processes on a micrometer level, an experimental setup with a new high-pressure cell was developed, which can be used in a pressure range between 0.1 MPa and 10.0 MPa. Peltier elements ensure precise cooling of the cell in a temperature range between 243 K and 300 K. The selected temperature and pressure ranges in which the cell can be used make it possible to simulate the formation of gas hydrates in their natural environment, e.g., on continental margins or in permafrost areas at a depth of up to 1000 m. The cell body is made of Hastelloy, which generally also allows the use of corrosive gases, such as H₂S, in the experiments. The inner sample space has a volume of about 550 µl. A quartz window allows for microscopic observations and the systematic and continuous in situ Raman spectroscopic investigations of the forming hydrate phase mimicking natural conditions. Single point measurements, line scans, and area maps provide information on spatial heterogeneities regarding compositions and cage occupancies. The pressure cell can be operated as a closed system or as an open system with a defined continuous gas flow. The use of a continuous gas flow also allows for the in situ investigation of transformation processes induced by changes of the feed gas composition. In this paper, all details of the new experimental setup as well as preliminary results of our investigations on the formation of complex mixed hydrate systems both in the open and closed systems as well as the CH₄-CO₂ transformation process are presented.

Structural evolution of methane hydrate under pressures up to 134 GPa

High-pressure experiments were performed to understand the structural evolution of methane hydrate (MH) up to 134 GPa using x-ray powder diffraction (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy with diamond anvil cells. XRD revealed the distinct changes in the diffraction lines of MH owing to phase transition from a guest-ordered state phase [MH-III(GOS)] to a new high-pressure phase (MH-IV) at 33.8-57.7 GPa. MH-IV was found to be stable up to at least 134 GPa without decomposition into solid methane and high-pressure ices. Raman spectroscopy showed the splits in the C-H vibration modes ν₃ and ν₁ of guest methane molecules in filled-ice Ih (MH-III) at 12.7 GPa and 28.6 GPa, respectively. These splits are caused by orientational ordering of guest methane molecules contained in the hydrate structure, as observed in a previous study. These results suggest that the structural evolution of the filled-ice structure of MH is caused by successive orientational ordering of guest methane molecules, thereby inducing changes in the host framework formed by water molecules.

Gas hydrates in sustainable chemistry

This review includes the current state of the art understanding and advances in technical developments about various fields of gas hydrates, which are combined with expert perspectives and analyses.

Molecular Dynamics Simulation Study on the Growth of Structure II Nitrogen Hydrate

Crystal growth of N₂ hydrate in a three-phase system consisting of N₂ hydrate, liquid water, and gaseous N₂ was performed by molecular dynamics simulation at 260 K. Pressure influence on hydrate growth was evaluated. The kinetic properties including the growth rates and cage occupancies of the newly formed hydrate and the diffusion coefficient and concentration of N₂ molecules in liquid phase were measured. The results showed that the growth of N₂ hydrate could be divided into two stages where N₂ molecules in gas phase had to dissolve in liquid phase and then form hydrate cages at the liquid-hydrate interface. The diffusion coefficient and concentration of N₂ in liquid phase increased linearly with increasing pressure. As the pressure rose from 50 to 100 MPa, the hydrate growth rate kept increasing from 0.11 to 0.62 cages·ns^-1·Å^-2 and then dropped down to around 0.40 cages·ns^-1·Å^-2 once the pressure surpassed 100 MPa. During the hydrate formation, the initial sII N₂ hydrate phase set in the system served as a template for the subsequent growth of N₂ hydrate so that no new crystal structure was found. Analysis on the cage occupancies revealed that the amount of cages occupied by two N₂ molecules increased evidently when the pressure was above 100 MPa, which slowed down the growth rate of hydrate cages. Additionally, a small fraction of defective cages including two N₂ molecules trapped in 5¹²6⁵ cages and three N₂ molecules trapped 5¹²6⁸ cages was observed during the hydrate growth.

Phase Diagram of Methane Hydrates and Discovery of MH-VI Hydrate

Methane hydrate is not only the predominant natural deposits of permafrost and continental margins of Earth but also the dominant methane-containing phase in the nebula and major moons of gas giants. Depending on the surrounding environment (mainly pressure), seven methane hydrate phases have been discovered by experiment or predicted by computer simulation, such as clathrate methane hydrates I, II, H, and K, and filled-ice methane hydrates III, IV, and V. Using extensive Monte Carlo packing algorithm and density functional theory optimization, here we predict a partial clathrate methane hydrate VI built by basic units of 4²6² water bowl encapsulating a methane molecule, which is dynamically stable from the computed phonon dispersion. Its density and structural characteristics are comparable to that of filled-ice methane hydrate III. By calculating the formation enthalpies of a variety of candidate phases at different pressures, a phase diagram of methane hydrates is constructed. As pressure rises, phase transitions occur  among the methane hydrates along with decreasing water/methane molecular ratios. The newly predicted methane hydrate VI emerges as the most stable phase in the region between clathrate phase II and filled-ice phase III, suggesting that methane hydrate VI might be synthesized in a laboratory under accessible conditions.

In situ Raman and X-ray diffraction studies on the high pressure and temperature stability of methane hydrate up to 55 GPa

High-temperature and high-pressure experiments were performed under 2-55 GPa and 298-653 K using in situ Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction combined with externally heated diamond anvil cells to investigate the stability of methane hydrate. Prior to in situ experiments, the typical C-H vibration modes of methane hydrate and their pressure dependence were measured at room temperature using Raman spectroscopy to make a clear discrimination between methane hydrate and solid methane which forms through the decomposition of methane hydrate at high temperature. The sequential in situ Raman spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction revealed that methane hydrate survives up to 633 K and 40.3 GPa and then decomposes into solid methane and ice VII above the conditions. The decomposition curve of methane hydrate estimated by the present experiments is >200 K lower than the melting curves of solid methane and ice VII, and moderately increases with increasing pressure. Our result suggests that although methane hydrate may be an important candidate for major constituents of cool exoplanets and other icy bodies, it is unlikely to be present in the ice mantle of Neptune and Uranus, where the temperature is expected to be far beyond the decomposition temperatures.

Fast methane diffusion at the interface of two clathrate structures

Methane hydrates naturally form on Earth and in the interiors of some icy bodies of the Universe, and are also expected to play a paramount role in future energy and environmental technologies. Here we report experimental observation of an extremely fast methane diffusion at the interface of the two most common clathrate hydrate structures, namely clathrate structures I and II. Methane translational diffusion—measured by quasielastic neutron scattering at 0.8 GPa—is faster than that expected in pure supercritical methane at comparable pressure and temperature. This phenomenon could be an effect of strong confinement or of methane aggregation in the form of micro-nanobubbles at the interface of the two structures. Our results could have implications for understanding the replacement kinetics during sI–sII conversion in gas exchange experiments and for establishing the methane mobility in methane hydrates embedded in the cryosphere of large icy bodies in the Universe.

Methane dynamics at the interface of ice clathrate structures is expected to play a role in phenomena ranging from gas exchange to methane mobility in planetary cryospheres. Here, the authors observe extremely fast methane diffusion at the interface of the two most common clathrate hydrate structures.

How Water's Properties Are Encoded in Its Molecular Structure and Energies

How are water's material properties encoded within the structure of the water molecule? This is pertinent to understanding Earth's living systems, its materials, its geochemistry and geophysics, and a broad spectrum of its industrial chemistry. Water has distinctive liquid and solid properties: It is highly cohesive. It has volumetric anomalies-water's solid (ice) floats on its liquid; pressure can melt the solid rather than freezing the liquid; heating can shrink the liquid. It has more solid phases than other materials. Its supercooled liquid has divergent thermodynamic response functions. Its glassy state is neither fragile nor strong. Its component ions-hydroxide and protons-diffuse much faster than other ions. Aqueous solvation of ions or oils entails large entropies and heat capacities. We review how these properties are encoded within water's molecular structure and energies, as understood from theories, simulations, and experiments. Like simpler liquids, water molecules are nearly spherical and interact with each other through van der Waals forces. Unlike simpler liquids, water's orientation-dependent hydrogen bonding leads to open tetrahedral cage-like structuring that contributes to its remarkable volumetric and thermal properties.

Evidence of Structure-Performance Relation for Surfactants Used as Antiagglomerants for Hydrate Management

Molecular dynamics simulations were employed to study the structure of molecularly thin films of antiagglomerants adsorbed at the interface between sII methane hydrates and a liquid hydrocarbon. The liquid hydrocarbon was composed of dissolved methane and higher-molecular-weight alkane such as n-hexane, n-octane, and n-dodecane. The antiagglomerants considered were surface-active compounds with three hydrophobic tails and a complex hydrophilic head that contains both amide and tertiary ammonium cation groups. The length of the hydrophobic tails and the surface density of the compounds were changed systematically. The results were analyzed in terms of the preferential orientation of the antiagglomerants, density distributions of various molecular compounds, and other molecular-level properties. At low surface densities, the hydrophobic tails do not show preferred orientation, irrespectively of the tail length. At sufficiently high surface densities, our simulations show pronounced differences in the structure of the interfacial film depending on the molecular features and on the type of hydrocarbons present in the system. Some antiagglomerants are found to pack densely at the interface and exclude methane from the interfacial region. Under these conditions, the antiagglomerant film resembles a frozen interface. The hydrophobic tails of the antiagglomerants that show this feature has a length comparable to that of the n-dodecane in the liquid phase. It is possible that the structured interfacial layer is in part responsible for determining the performance of antiagglomerants in flow-assurance applications. The simulation results are compared against experimental data obtained with the rocking cell apparatus. It was found that the antiagglomerants for which our simulations suggest evidence of a frozen interface at sufficiently high surface densities are those that show better performance in rocking cell experiments.

Phase diagram of water–methane by first-principles thermodynamics: discovery of MH-IV and MH-V hydrates

We disclose a new dense methane hydrate phases (MH-IV) using the Monte-Carlo packing algorithm and density-functional theory (DFT) optimization, which is superior to previous reported filled ices to apply to energy storage.

Self-preservation and structural transition of gas hydrates during dissociation below the ice point: an in situ study using Raman spectroscopy

The hydrate structure type and dissociation behavior for pure methane and methane-ethane hydrates at temperatures below the ice point and atmospheric pressure were investigated using in situ Raman spectroscopic analysis. The self-preservation effect of sI methane hydrate is significant at lower temperatures (268.15 to 270.15 K), as determined by the stable C-H region Raman peaks and A_L/A_S value (Ratio of total peak area corresponding to occupancies of guest molecules in large cavities to small cavities) being around 3.0. However, it was reduced at higher temperatures (271.15 K and 272.15 K), as shown from the dramatic change in Raman spectra and fluctuations in A_L/A_S values. The self-preservation effect for methane-ethane double hydrate is observed at temperatures lower than 271.15 K. The structure transition from sI to sII occurred during the methane-ethane hydrate decomposition process, which was clearly identified by the shift in peak positions and the change in relative peak intensities at temperatures from 269.15 K to 271.15 K. Further investigation shows that the selectivity for self-preservation of methane over ethane leads to the structure transition; this kind of selectivity increases with decreasing temperature. This work provides new insight into the kinetic behavior of hydrate dissociation below the ice point.

Phase diagrams for clathrate hydrates of methane, ethane, and propane from first-principles thermodynamics

Natural gas hydrates are inclusion compounds composed of major light hydrocarbon gaseous molecules (CH4, C2H6, and C3H8) and a water clathrate framework. Understanding the phase stability and formation conditions of natural gas hydrates is crucial for their future exploitation and applications and requires an accurate description of intermolecular interactions. Previous ab initio calculations on gas hydrates were mainly limited by the cluster models, whereas the phase diagram and equilibrium conditions of hydrate formation were usually investigated using the thermodynamic models or empirical molecular simulations. For the first time, we construct the chemical potential phase diagrams of type II clathrate hydrates encapsulated with methane/ethane/propane guest molecules using first-principles thermodynamics. We find that the partially occupied structures (136H2O·1CH4, 136H2O·16CH4, 136H2O·20CH4, 136H2O·1C2H6, and 136H2O·1C3H8) and fully occupied structures (136H2O·24CH4, 136H2O·8C2H6, and 136H2O·8C3H8) are thermodynamically favorable under given pressure-temperature (p-T) conditions. The theoretically predicted equilibrium pressures for pure CH4, C2H6 and C3H8 hydrates at the phase transition point are consistent with the experimental data. These results provide valuable guidance for establishing the relationship between the accurate description of intermolecular noncovalent interactions and the p-T equilibrium conditions of clathrate hydrates and other molecular crystals.

High pressure used for producing a new solvate of 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane hydroiodide

Above 3.1 GPa, the solvate with water and methanol is formed, which cannot be obtained at normal pressure.

Mechanical instability of monocrystalline and polycrystalline methane hydrates

Despite observations of massive methane release and geohazards associated with gas hydrate instability in nature, as well as ductile flow accompanying hydrate dissociation in artificial polycrystalline methane hydrates in the laboratory, the destabilising mechanisms of gas hydrates under deformation and their grain-boundary structures have not yet been elucidated at the molecular level. Here we report direct molecular dynamics simulations of the material instability of monocrystalline and polycrystalline methane hydrates under mechanical loading. The results show dislocation-free brittle failure in monocrystalline hydrates and an unexpected crossover from strengthening to weakening in polycrystals. Upon uniaxial depressurisation, strain-induced hydrate dissociation accompanied by grain-boundary decohesion and sliding destabilises the polycrystals. In contrast, upon compression, appreciable solid-state structural transformation dominates the response. These findings provide molecular insight not only into the metastable structures of grain boundaries, but also into unusual ductile flow with hydrate dissociation as observed during macroscopic compression experiments.

Sediment-hosted gas hydrates may release vast quantities of methane upon failure, but destabilizing mechanisms at the molecular level are poorly understood. Here, the authors study the deformation using simulations and find that failure differs between single crystals and polycrystalline hydrates.

Benchmarking the performance of density functional theory and point charge force fields in their description of sI methane hydrate against diffusion Monte Carlo

High quality reference data from diffusion Monte Carlo calculations are presented for bulk sI methane hydrate, a complex crystal exhibiting both hydrogen-bond and dispersion dominated interactions. The performance of some commonly used exchange-correlation functionals and all-atom point charge force fields is evaluated. Our results show that none of the exchange-correlation functionals tested are sufficient to describe both the energetics and the structure of methane hydrate accurately, while the point charge force fields perform badly in their description of the cohesive energy but fair well for the dissociation energetics. By comparing to ice Ih, we show that a good prediction of the volume and cohesive energies for the hydrate relies primarily on an accurate description of the hydrogen bonded water framework, but that to correctly predict stability of the hydrate with respect to dissociation to ice Ih and methane gas, accuracy in the water-methane interaction is also required. Our results highlight the difficulty that density functional theory faces in describing both the hydrogen bonded water framework and the dispersion bound methane.

Time-resolved X-ray diffraction and Raman studies of the phase transition mechanisms of methane hydrate

The mechanisms by which methane hydrate transforms from an sI to sH structure and from an sH to filled-ice Ih structure were examined using time-resolved X-ray diffractometry (XRD) and Raman spectroscopy in conjunction with charge-coupled device camera observation under fixed pressure conditions. The XRD data obtained for the sI-sH transition at 0.8 GPa revealed an inverse correlation between sI and sH, suggesting that the sI structure is replaced by sH. Meanwhile, the Raman analysis demonstrated that although the 12-hedra of sI are retained, the 14-hedra are replaced sequentially by additional 12-hedra, modified 12-hedra, and 20-hedra cages of sH. With the sH to filled-ice Ih transition at 1.8 GPa, both the XRD and Raman data showed that this occurs through a sudden collapse of the sH structure and subsequent release of solid and fluid methane that is gradually incorporated into the filled-ice Ih to complete its structure. This therefore represents a typical reconstructive transition mechanism.

Vlugt TJ. Compressibility, thermal expansion coefficient and heat capacity of CH4 and CO2 hydrate mixtures using molecular dynamics simulations

Understanding the thermal and mechanical properties of CH₄ and CO₂ hydrates is essential for the replacement of CH₄ with CO₂ in natural hydrate deposits as well as for CO₂ sequestration and storage.

The structure of CO₂ hydrate between 0.7 and 1.0 GPa

A deuterated sample of CO2 structure I (sI) clathrate hydrate (CO2·8.3 D2O) has been formed and neutron diffraction experiments up to 1.0 GPa at 240 K were performed. The sI CO2 hydrate transformed at 0.7 GPa into the high pressure phase that had been observed previously by Hirai et al. [J. Phys. Chem. 133, 124511 (2010)] and Bollengier et al. [Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 119, 322 (2013)], but which had not been structurally identified. The current neutron diffraction data were successfully fitted to a filled ice structure with CO2 molecules filling the water channels. This CO2+water system has also been investigated using classical molecular dynamics and density functional ab initio methods to provide additional characterization of the high pressure structure. Both models indicate the water network adapts a MH-III "like" filled ice structure with considerable disorder of the orientations of the CO2 molecule. Furthermore, the disorder appears to be a direct result of the level of proton disorder in the water network. In contrast to the conclusions of Bollengier et al., our neutron diffraction data show that the filled ice phase can be recovered to ambient pressure (0.1 MPa) at 96 K, and recrystallization to sI hydrate occurs upon subsequent heating to 150 K, possibly by first forming low density amorphous ice. Unlike other clathrate hydrate systems, which transform from the sI or sII structure to the hexagonal structure (sH) then to the filled ice structure, CO2 hydrate transforms directly from the sI form to the filled ice structure.

Isothermal and isochoric crystallization of highly hygroscopic pyridine N-oxide of aqueous solution

Highly hygroscopic pyridine N-oxide, C5H5NO, dissolves in water absorbed from atmospheric air, but it crystallizes in the neat form of the aqueous solution under high pressure. The crystals grown at high-pressure isochoric conditions are of the same phase as that obtained from anhydrous crystallization at ambient pressure. This feature can be employed for retrieving compounds highly soluble in water from their aqueous solutions. The crystal structure is strongly stabilized by CH...O contacts. The crystal compression and thermal expansion as well as three shortest H...O distances comply with the inverse-relationship rule of pressure and temperature changes.

Atomistic simulations of methane interactions with an atmospheric moisture

Methane is an extremely effective absorber of radiation, i.e., it is a relatively potent greenhouse gas, and the increased concentration of methane in the atmosphere must influence earth's radiation balance. The adsorption of one to six methane molecules by water clusters is studied by the method of molecular dynamics under near-atmospheric conditions. The capture of methane molecules by water clusters produces an increase in the integrated intensity of IR absorbance and the reflection coefficient. The Raman spectrum of the system is considerably depleted due to the addition of methane molecules to the disperse water system. The observed emission power of a dispersed aqueous system with adsorbed methane molecules has appreciably increased relative to the analogous characteristics of the pure water cluster system. The Voronoi polyhedra and simplified ones constructed within the framework of molecular-dynamic model of clusters are used for the analysis of the structure changes occurring with increasing the number of adsorbed CH4 molecules.

Identification of a mechanism of transformation of clathrate hydrate structures I to II or H

Binary mixed-gas hydrates including methane and other guest gases demonstrate a structural transition between the sI and sII phases. Under increasing pressure pure methane hydrate exhibits a phase transition first from sI to sII and then to sH. But the mechanism of the transformation from sI to sII or sH has not yet been identified. Recently, molecular dynamics simulations of methane hydrates suggest there may exist uncommon 15-hedral cages (5¹²6³), linking the sI and sII cages. In addition, xenon hydrate involving 15-hedral cages has been synthesized and named an hsI hydrate. Based on the hsI cages, we propose a mechanism for the transition of sI to sII or sH at atomic level resolution. The sI hydrate is first transformed to hsI, and hsI is further transformed to sII. Upon compression, hsI is transformed to sH owing to depletion of atomic layers. The mechanism of transformation speculated here calls for experimental verification.

Observation of two-step nucleation in methane hydrates

In this work we show that homogeneous nucleation of methane hydrate can, under appropriate conditions, be a very rapid process, achieved within tens of nanoseconds. In agreement with recent experimental results on different systems, we find that the nucleation of a gas hydrate crystal appears as a two-step process. It starts with the formation of disordered solid-like structures, which will then spontaneously evolve to more recognizable crystalline forms. This previously elusive first-stage state is confirmed to be post-critical in the nucleation process, and is characterized as processing reasonable short-range structure but essentially no long-range order. Its energy, molecular diffusion and local structure reflect a solid-like character, although it does exhibit mobility over longer (tens of ns) timescales. We provide insights into the controversial issue of memory effects in methane hydrates. We show that areas locally richer in methane will nucleate much more readily, and no 'memory' of the crystal is required for fast re-crystallization. We anticipate that much richer polycrystallinity and novel methane hydrate phases could be possible.

Physical Properties of Gas Hydrates: A Review

Methane gas hydrates in sediments have been studied by several investigators as a possible future energy resource. Recent hydrate reserves have been estimated at approximately1016 m3of methane gas worldwide at standard temperature and pressure conditions. In situ dissociation of natural gas hydrate is necessary in order to commercially exploit the resource from the natural-gas-hydrate-bearing sediment. The presence of gas hydrates in sediments dramatically alters some of the normal physical properties of the sediment. These changes can be detected by field measurements and by down-hole logs. An understanding of the physical properties of hydrate-bearing sediments is necessary for interpretation of geophysical data collected in field settings, borehole, and slope stability analyses; reservoir simulation; and production models. This work reviews information available in literature related to the physical properties of sediments containing gas hydrates. A brief review of the physical properties of bulk gas hydrates is included. Detection methods, morphology, and relevant physical properties of gas-hydrate-bearing sediments are also discussed.