Reciprocal modulation of growth and differentiated functions of mature rat hepatocytes in primary culture by cell--cell contact and cell membranes

Bone morphogenetic protein 8B promotes the progression of non-alcoholic steatohepatitis

Non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) is characterized by lipotoxicity, inflammation and fibrosis, ultimately leading to end-stage liver disease. The molecular mechanisms promoting NASH are poorly understood, and treatment options are limited. Here, we demonstrate that hepatic expression of bone morphogenetic protein 8B (BMP8B), a member of the transforming growth factor beta (TGFβ)-BMP superfamily, increases proportionally to disease stage in people and animal models with NASH. BMP8B signals via both SMAD2/3 and SMAD1/5/9 branches of the TGFβ-BMP pathway in hepatic stellate cells (HSCs), promoting their proinflammatory phenotype. In vivo, the absence of BMP8B prevents HSC activation, reduces inflammation and affects the wound-healing responses, thereby limiting NASH progression. Evidence is featured in primary human 3D microtissues modelling NASH, when challenged with recombinant BMP8. Our data show that BMP8B is a major contributor to NASH progression. Owing to the near absence of BMP8B in healthy livers, inhibition of BMP8B may represent a promising new therapeutic avenue for NASH treatment.

Formation of Porcine Hepatocyte Spheroids for use in a Bioartificial Liver

Xenogeneic hepatocytes have recently been used in a bioartificial liver device as a potential short-term extracorporeal support of acute liver failure. Scaling up the system requires large quantities of viable and highly active cells. Hepatocytes grown as spheroids manifest higher metabolic activities for longer time periods as compared to those in monolayer cultures. Use of hepatocyte spheroids for application in a bioartificial liver can possibly alleviate the need of scaling up. Porcine hepatocytes when cultured under stirred conditions, form multicellular spheroids in a defined culture medium. Spheroids were formed 24 h after cell inoculation with an efficiency of 80-90% and a mean diameter of about 135 μm. Scanning electron microscopy revealed numerous microvilli projecting from the entire surface of the spheroids. Transmission electron microscopy revealed differentiated hepatocytes which displayed well-developed cytoplasmic structures separated by bile canaliculus-like structures. The morphological studies show a resemblance between cells in the spheroids and in the liver in vivo. Ureagenesis by spheroids was twice as active and was sustained for a longer culture period than that by hepatocytes cultured as monolayers. Preparation of porcine hepatocyte spheroids in an agitated vessel is simple efficient and reproducible. It will allow for preparation of large quantities of spheroids to be employed in a bioartificial liver device as well as in liver metabolism studies.

Decreased contact inhibition in mouse adipose mesenchymal stem cells

The proliferation of embryonic cells or adult stem cells in tissue is critically regulated during development and repair. How limited the proliferation of cells, so far, is not much explored. Cell-cell contact proliferation inhibition is known as a crucial mechanism regulating cell proliferation in vitro and in vivo. In this study we examined the characters of mouse subcutaneous adipose derived stem cells (msADSC) whether they lost or get contact inhibition during in vitro culture. The characters of msADSC growth after confluence were analyzed using confocal microscope and the expression profiles of contact inhibition related genes were analyzed according to the morphological changes using real-time PCR method. msADSC showed overlapping growth between them but not after passage 14. The cell shapes were also changed after passage 14. The expression profiles of genes which are involved in contact inhibition were modified in the msADSC after passage 14. The differentiation ability of msADSCs to adipocyte, chondrocyte and osteocyte was not changed by such changes of gene expression profiles. Based on these results, it is revealed that smADSC were characterized by getting of strong cell-cell contact inhibition after passage 14 but the proliferation and developmental ability were not blocked by the change of cell-cell contact proliferation inhibition. These finding will help to understand the growth of adipose tissue, although further studies are needed to evaluate the physiological meaning of the cell-cell contact proliferation inhibition during in vitro culture of msADSC.

Hepatic organoids for microfluidic drug screening

We introduce the microfluidic organoids for drug screening (MODS) platform, a digital microfluidic system that is capable of generating arrays of individually addressable, free-floating, three-dimensional hydrogel-based microtissues (or 'organoids'). Here, we focused on liver organoids, driven by the need for early-stage screening methods for hepatotoxicity that enable a "fail early, fail cheaply" strategy in drug discovery. We demonstrate that arrays of hepatic organoids can be formed from co-cultures of HepG2 and NIH-3T3 cells embedded in hydrogel matrices. The organoids exhibit fibroblast-dependent contractile behaviour, and their albumin secretion profiles and cytochrome P450 3A4 activities are better mimics of in vivo liver tissue than comparable two-dimensional cell culture systems. As proof of principle for screening, MODS was used to generate and analyze the effects of a dilution series of acetaminophen on apoptosis and necrosis. With further development, we propose that the MODS platform may be a cost-effective tool in a "fail early, fail cheaply" paradigm of drug development.

Investigation of expression and activity levels of primary rat hepatocyte detoxication genes under various flow rates and cell densities in microfluidic biochips

We investigated the behavior of primary rat hepatocytes in biochips using a microfluidic platform (the integrated dynamic cell culture microchip). We studied the effects of cell inoculation densities (0.2-0.5 × 10(6) cells/biochip) and perfusion flow rates (10, 25, and 40 µL/min) during 72 h of perfusion. No effects were observed on hepatocyte morphology, but the levels of mRNA and CYP1A2 activity were found to be dependent on the initial cell densities and flow rates. The dataset made it possible to extract a best estimated range of parameters in which the rat hepatocytes appeared the most functional in the biochips. Namely, at 0.25 × 10(6) inoculated cells cultivated at 25 µL/min for 72 h, we demonstrated better induction of the expression of all the genes analyzed in comparison with other cell densities and flow rates. More precisely, when primary rat hepatocytes were cultivated at these conditions, the time-lapse analysis demonstrated an over expression of CYP3A1, CYP2B1, ABCC1b and ABCC2 in the biochips when compared to the postextraction levels. Furthermore, the AHR, CYP1A2, GSTA2, SULT1A1, and UGT1A6 levels remained higher than 50% of the postextraction values whereas values of HNF4α, CEBP, and PXR remained higher than 20% during the duration of the culture process. Nevertheless, an important reduction in mRNA levels was found for the xenosensors CAR and FXR, and the related CYP (CYP2E1, CYP7A1, CYP3A2, and CYP2D2). CYP1A2 functionality was illustrated by 700 ± 100 pmol/h/10(6) cells resorufin production. This study highlighted the functionality in optimized conditions of primary rat hepatocytes in parallelized microfluidic cultures and their potential for drug screening applications.

β-Lapachone alleviates alcoholic fatty liver disease in rats

Alcohol-induced liver injury is the most common liver disease in which fatty acid metabolism is altered. It is thought that altered NAD(+)/NADH redox potential by alcohol in the liver causes fatty liver by inhibiting fatty acid oxidation and the activity of tricarboxylic acid cycle reactions. β-Lapachone (βL), a naturally occurring quinone, has been shown to stimulate fatty acid oxidation in an obese mouse model by activating adenosine monophosphate-activated protein kinase (AMPK). In this report, we clearly show that βL reduced alcohol-induced hepatic steatosis and induced fatty acid oxidizing capacity in ethanol-fed rats. βL treatment markedly decreased hepatic lipids while serum levels of lipids and lipoproteins were increased in rats fed ethanol-containing liquid diets with βL administration. Furthermore, inhibition of lipolysis, enhancement of lipid mobilization to mitochondria and upregulation of mitochondrial β-oxidation activity in the soleus muscle were observed in ethanol/βL-treated animals compared to the ethanol-fed rats. In addition, the activity of alcohol dehydrogenase, but not aldehyde dehydrogenase, was significantly increased in rats fed βL diets. βL-mediated modulation of NAD(+)/NADH ratio led to the activation of AMPK signaling in these animals.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that improvement of fatty liver by βL administration is mediated by the upregulation of apoB100 synthesis and lipid mobilization from the liver as well as the direct involvement of βL on NAD(+)/NADH ratio changes, resulting in the activation of AMPK signaling and PPARα-mediated β-oxidation. Therefore, βL-mediated alteration of NAD(+)/NADH redox potential may be of potential therapeutic benefit in the clinical setting.

Application of three-dimensional culture conditions to human embryonic stem cell-derived definitive endoderm cells enhances hepatocyte differentiation and functionality

Human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) provide an unlimited source for the generation of human hepatocytes, owing to their indefinite self-renewal and pluripotent properties. Both hESC-/iPSC-derived hepatocytes hold great promise in treating liver diseases as potential candidates for cell replacement therapies or as an in vitro platform to conduct new drug trials. It has been previously demonstrated that the initiation of hESC differentiation in monolayer cultures increases the generation of definitive endoderm (DE) and subsequently of hepatocyte differentiation. However, monolayer culture may hinder the maturation of hESC-derived hepatocytes, since such two-dimensional (2D) conditions do not accurately reflect the complex nature of three-dimensional (3D) hepatocyte specification in vivo. Here, we report the sequential application of 2D and 3D culture systems to differentiate hESCs to hepatocytes. Human ESCs were initially differentiated in a monolayer culture to DE cells, which were then inoculated into Algimatrix scaffolds. Treatments of hESC-DE cells with a ROCK inhibitor before and after inoculation dramatically enhanced their survival and the formation of spheroids, which are distinct from HepG2 carcinoma cells. In comparison with monolayer culture alone, sequential 2D and 3D cultures significantly improved hepatocyte differentiation and function. Our results demonstrate that hESC-DE cells can be incorporated into Algimatrix 3D culture systems to enhance hepatocyte differentiation and function.

AR42J-B-13 cell: an expandable progenitor to generate an unlimited supply of functional hepatocytes

Hepatocytes are the preparation of choice for Toxicological research in vitro. However, despite the fact that hepatocytes proliferate in vivo during liver regeneration, they are resistant to proliferation in vitro, do not tolerate sub-culture and tend to enter a de-differentiation program that results in a loss of hepatic function. These limitations have resulted in the search for expandable rodent and human cells capable of being directed to differentiate into functional hepatocytes. Research with stem cells suggests that it may be possible to provide the research community with hepatocytes in vitro although to date, significant challenges remain, notably generating a sufficiently pure population of hepatocytes with a quantitative functionality comparable with hepatocytes. This paper reviews work with the AR42J-B-13 (B-13) cell line. The B-13 cell was cloned from the rodent AR42J pancreatic cell line, express genes associated with pancreatic acinar cells and readily proliferates in simple culture media. When exposed to glucocorticoid, 75-85% of the cells trans-differentiate into hepatocyte-like (B-13/H) cells functioning at a level quantitatively similar to freshly isolated rat hepatocytes (with the remaining cells retaining the B-13 phenotype). Trans-differentiation of pancreatic acinar cells also appears to occur in vivo in rats treated with glucocorticoid; in mice with elevated circulating glucocorticoid and in humans treated for long periods with glucocorticoid. The B-13 response to glucocorticoid therefore appears to be related to a real pathophysiological response of a pancreatic cell to glucocorticoid. An understanding of how this process occurs and if it can be generated or engineered in human cells would result in a cell line with the ability to generate an unlimited supply of functional human hepatocytes in a cost effective manner.

X-radiation-induced down-regulation of the EGF receptor in primary cultured rat hepatocytes

Exposure to X radiation is associated with a decline in the proliferative activity of the liver, but the molecular mechanism(s) is not well understood. We investigated whether exposure to X radiation is involved in functional changes in the epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR), thereby causing a reduction of EGF-induced DNA synthesis using periportal hepatocytes (PPH) and perivenous hepatocytes (PVH), which differ in their proliferative activity. X radiation dose-dependently decreased DNA synthesis in both subpopulations. The rate of decline in the DNA synthesis was greater in PPH than in PVH, but the zonal difference disappeared after exposure to 10 Gy X radiation. [(125)I]EGF binding studies indicated that high-affinity EGFRs in both subpopulations were down-regulated after X irradiation. Furthermore, EGF-induced EGFR dimerization and phosphorylation at Y1173 in both subpopulations were down-regulated after X irradiation, and the rate of decline was greater in PPH than in PVH. In contrast, phosphorylation at Y845 after EGF treatment was dose-dependently up-regulated after X irradiation in both subpopulations. These results suggest that the X-radiation-related decline in EGF-induced DNA synthesis is caused at least partly by the modification of EGFR function.

Development of a hybrid liver-support device

The development of an extracorporeal hybrid liver-support system using hepatocytes and an artificial device has been long awaited for the treatment of patients with hepatic failure. During the past decade important progress has been made in biotechnology and bioengineering, and a hybrid liver-support device using metabolically active hepatocytes may well become a reality in the near future. This paper outlines recent developments in bioreactor systems used as bioartificial liver-support devices, and focuses on critical issues for bioreactor design, main transport features and culture techniques for hepatocytes. We describe our bioreactor, which uses porcine hepatocytes, and the scaling-up of the device. The biochemical performance of such a device is comparable to that of those developed by other researchers, and we feel encouraged to perform in vivo experiments on animal models in order to evaluate the potential of the device as a bioartificial liver.

Regulation of glutathione synthesis

Glutathione (GSH) is a ubiquitous intracellular peptide with diverse functions that include detoxification, antioxidant defense, maintenance of thiol status, and modulation of cell proliferation. GSH is synthesized in the cytosol of all mammalian cells in a tightly regulated manner. The major determinants of GSH synthesis are the availability of cysteine, the sulfur amino acid precursor, and the activity of the rate-limiting enzyme, glutamate cysteine ligase (GCL). GCL is composed for a catalytic (GCLC) and modifier (GCLM) subunit and they are regulated at multiple levels and at times differentially. The second enzyme of GSH synthesis, GSH synthase (GS) is also regulated in a coordinated manner as GCL subunits and its up-regulation can further enhance the capacity of the cell to synthesize GSH. Oxidative stress is well known to induce the expression of GSH synthetic enzymes. Key transcription factors identified thus far include Nrf2/Nrf1 via the antioxidant response element (ARE), activator protein-1 (AP-1) and nuclear factor kappa B (NFkappaB). Dysregulation of GSH synthesis is increasingly being recognized as contributing to the pathogenesis of many pathological conditions. These include diabetes mellitus, pulmonary fibrosis, cholestatic liver injury, endotoxemia and drug-resistant tumor cells. Manipulation of the GSH synthetic capacity is an important target in the treatment of many of these disorders.

Canine bone marrow cells differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells and placental hydrolysate is a potential inducer

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) can stimulate human and rat bone marrow (BM) cells to differentiate into hepatocytes. A human placental hydrolysate (hPH) stimulates proliferation of hepatocytes, but its role as a potential inducer of BM cells to form hepatocytes is unclear. To determine if canine BM cells stimulated with HGF or hPH differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells, BM cells were cultured with HGF or hPH. The cultured cells underwent morphological examination, expression of albumin and cytokeratin 18 (CK18), hepatic function tests including uptake of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) and cytochrome P (CYP) 450 activity. Albumin mRNA and protein expression of albumin and CK18 proteins were detected in cultures with HGF and hPH. Furthermore, these cells demonstrated LDL uptake and CYP450 activity. These results indicate that canine BM cells can differentiate into hepatocyte-like cells when stimulated by both HGF and that hPH may be an effective inducer of hepatic differentiation.

A new technique for primary hepatocyte expansion in vitro

The current application for many potential cell-based treatments for liver failure is limited by the low availability of mature functional hepatocytes. Although adult hepatocytes have a remarkable ability to proliferate in vivo, attempts to proliferate adult hepatocytes in vitro have been less successful. In this study, we investigated the effect of coculture cell type on the proliferative response and the functional activities of hepatocytes. We show, for the first time, a robust proliferative response of primary adult rat hepatocytes when cocultured with mouse 3T3-J2 fibroblasts. Hepatocytes cultured at low density on growth-arrested 3T3-J2 fibroblast feeder layers underwent significantly higher proliferation rates than when cultured on feeder layers made of four other cell types. Increasing colony size correlated with an increase in hepatocellular functions. The proliferating hepatocytes retained their morphologic, phenotypic, and functional characteristics. Using a cell patterning technique, we found that 3T3-J2 fibroblasts stimulate DNA synthesis in hepatocytes by short-range heterotypic cell-cell interactions. When hepatocytes that proliferated in cocultures were harvested and further subcultured either on 3T3-J2 fibroblast feeders or in the collagen sandwich configuration, their behavior was similar to that of freshly isolated hepatocytes. We conclude that adult rat hepatocytes can proliferate in vitro in a coculture cell type-dependent manner, and can be serially propagated by coculturing with 3T3-J2 fibroblasts while maintaining their differentiated characteristics. Our results also suggest that one of the major reasons for the functional differences in hepatocyte cocultures may be due to the different proliferative responses of hepatocytes as a function of coculture cell type. This study provides new insights in the roles of coculture cell types and cell-cell interactions in the modulation of hepatic proliferation and function.

A method for the design of 3D scaffolds for high-density cell attachment and determination of optimum perfusion culture conditions

The application of in vitro cultured cells in tissue engineering or drug screening, aimed at complex soft tissues such as liver, requires in vivo physiological function of the cultured cells. For this purpose, the scaffold in which cells are cultured should provide a microenvironment similar to an in vivo one with a three-dimensional extracellular matrix, a high supply capacity of O(2) and nutrients, and high cell density. In this paper, we propose a method to design (1) the geometry of the scaffold, with a surface/volume ratio optimized to allow high-density (5 x 10(7)cells/mL) cell culture and (2) culture conditions that will supply optimal quantities of oxygen and nutrients. CFD modeling of mass transport was used to determine the shear stress as well as O(2) and glucose metabolism in the scaffold (20 mm width-35 mm length) for various flow rates. Validation of the model was done through comparison with flow resistance and micro-PIV experiments. CFD analysis showed the maximum metabolic rate densities for this scaffold are 6.04 x 10(-3)mol/s/m(3) for O(2) at 0.71 mL/min and 1.91 x 10(-2)mol/s/m(3) for glucose at 0.35 mL/min.

Use of photolithography to encode cell adhesive domains into protein microarrays

Protein microarrays are rapidly emerging as valuable tools in creating combinatorial cell culture systems where inducers of cellular differentiation can be identified in a rapid and multiplexed fashion. In the present study, protein microarraying was combined with photoresist lithography to enable printing of extracellular matrix (ECM) protein arrays while precisely controlling "on-the-spot" cell-cell interactions. In this surface engineering approach, the micropatterned photoresist layer formed on a glass substrate served as a temporary stencil during the microarray printing, defining the micrometer-scale dimensions and the geometry of the cell-adhesion domains within the printed protein spots. After removal of the photoresist, the glass substrates contained micrometer-scale cell-adhesive regions that were encoded within 300 or 500 microm diameter protein domains. Fluorescence microscopy and atomic force microscopy (AFM) were employed to characterize protein micropatterns. When incubated with micropatterned surfaces, hepatic (HepG2) cells attached on 300 or 500 mum diameter protein spots; however, the extent of cell-cell contacts within each spot varied in accordance with dimensions of the photoresist stencil, from single cells attaching on 30 microm diameter features to multicell clusters residing on 100 or 200 microm diameter regions. Importantly, the photoresist removal process was shown to have no detrimental effects on the ability of several ECM proteins (collagens I, II, and IV and laminin) to support functional hepatic cultures. The micropatterning approach described here allows for a small cell population seeded onto a single cell culture substrate to be exposed to multiple scenarios of cell-cell and cell-surface interactions in parallel. This technology will be particularly useful for high-throughput screening of biological stimuli required for tissue specification of stem cells or for maintenance of differentiated phenotype in scarce primary cells.

Effect of aging on EGF-induced proliferative response in primary cultured periportal and perivenous hepatocytes

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Aging relates to declined proliferative capacity of the liver, but the molecular mechanism is not well understood. We examined whether functional changes of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptor (EGFR) are involved in age-related decline in EGF-induced DNA synthesis using hepatocytes isolated in periportal and perivenous regions of the liver, which differ in the proliferative capacity.

METHODS

Periportal hepatocytes (PPH) and perivenous hepatocytes (PVH) in 7-, 30-, and 90-week-old rats were isolated using the digitonin/collagenase perfusion technique. DNA synthesis was assessed by [methyl-(3)H]thymidine incorporation. EGFR binding affinity to EGF was analyzed by Scatchard analysis using [(125)I]EGF. EGFR dimerization and phosphorylation were determined by Western blot analysis.

RESULTS

EGF-induced DNA synthesis was greater in PPH than in PVH from rats of 7 weeks, but the zonal difference disappeared with aging. [(125)I]EGF binding studies indicated that high-affinity EGFR in both subpopulations also disappeared with aging. Furthermore, EGF-induced dimerization in both subpopulations was down-regulated with aging, and the pattern of EGFR phosphorylation was parallel to that of dimerization.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest that age-related decline in EGF-induced DNA synthesis of PPH and PVH is caused by down-regulation of EGFR dimerization through the decrease of high-affinity EGFR.

Ordered heterogeneity and its decline in cancer and aging

Ordered heterogeneity was introduced as a basic feature of the living state in the mid-1950s. It was later expanded to "order in the large over heterogeneity in the small" as the first principle of a theory of organisms. Several examples of ordered heterogeneity were given at the time to illustrate the principle, but many more have become apparent since then to confirm its generality. They include minimum size requirements for progressive embryological development, the errant behavior of cells liberated from tissue architecture, their sorting out to reconstitute tissues on reaggregation, and contact regulation of cell proliferation. There is increasing heterogeneity of cell growth with age, and marked heterogeneity of many characters among cells of solid epithelial tumors. Normal growth behavior is reintroduced in solitary, carcinogen-initiated epidermal cells by contact with an excess of normal epidermal cells. Contact normalization also occurs when solitary hepatocarcinoma cells are transplanted into the parenchyma of normal liver of young, but not of old, animals. The role of the plasma membrane and adhesion molecules in ordering heterogeneity is evaluated. Organizing the results in a conceptual structure helps to understand classical observations of tumor biology such as the lifetime quiescence of carcinogen-initiated epidermal cells and the marked increase of cancer incidence with age. The principle of order above heterogeneity thus provides a unifying framework for a variety of seemingly unrelated processes in normal and neoplastic development. Whereas contact between cells is required for these processes to occur, gap junctional communication is not required.

Activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase by hepatocyte growth factor is stimulated by both alpha1- and beta2-adrenergic agonists in primary cultures of adult rat hepatocytes

We investigated the effects of alpha(1)- and beta(2)-adrenergic agonists on hepatocyte growth factor (HGF)-stimulated mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) isoforms in primary cultures of adult rat hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were isolated and cultured with HGF (5 ng/ml) and/or alpha- and beta-adrenergic agonists. Phosphorylated MAPK isoforms (p42 and p44 MAPK) were detected by Western blotting analysis using anti-phospho-MAPK antibody. The results show that HGF increased phosphorylation of p42 MAPK by 2.2-fold within 3 min. The HGF-induced MAPK activation was abolished by AG1478 treatment (10(-7) M). The MEK (MAPK kinase) inhibitor PD98059 (10(-6) M) completely inhibited the HGF-dependent increase in MAPK activity. Phenylephrine (10(-6) M) and metaproterenol (10(-6) M) alone had no effect in the absence of HGF, but significantly increased p42 MAPK induction by HGF. Moreover, the cell-permeable cAMP analog, 8-bromo cAMP (10(-7) M), and phorbol 12-myristate 13 acetate (10(-7) M) potentiated HGF-induced MAPK phosphorylation. The effects of these analogs were antagonized by the protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor H-89 (10(-7) M) and the protein kinase C (PKC) inhibitor sphingosine (10(-6) M), respectively. These results suggest that direct or indirect activation of both PKA and PKC represent a positive regulatory mechanism for stimulating MAPK induction by HGF.

Effect of hepatocyte growth factor on methionine adenosyltransferase genes and growth is cell density-dependent in HepG2 cells

Hepatocyte growth factor (HGF) is a potent hepatocyte mitogen but its effect in liver cancer is conflicting. Methionine adenosyltransferase (MAT) is an essential enzyme encoded by two genes (MAT1A and MAT2A), while a third gene (MAT2beta) encodes for a subunit that regulates the MAT2A-encoded isoenzyme. MAT1A is silenced while MAT2A and MAT2beta are induced in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). The current work examined expression of HGF/c-met in HCC and whether HGF regulates MAT genes and growth in HepG2 cells. We found the mRNA levels of HGF and c-met are markedly increased in HCC. To study the influence of cell density, HepG2 cells were plated under high-density (HD) or low-density (LD) and treated with HGF (10 ng/ml). Cell density had a dramatic effect on MAT1A expression, being nearly undetectable at LD to a ninefold induction under HD. Cell density also determined the effect of HGF. At HD, HGF increased the mRNA levels of p21 and p27, while lowering the levels of MAT genes, cyclin A, and c-met. At LD, HGF increased the mRNA levels of cyclin A, MAT2A, MAT2beta, and c-met. Consistently, HGF inhibits growth under HD but stimulates growth under LD. HGF induced sustained high ERK activation under HD as compared to LD. In summary, HGF induces genes favoring growth and is mitogenic when HepG2 cells are plated under LD; however, the opposite occurs under HD. This involves cell density-dependent differences in HGF-induced ERK activation. This may explain why HGF is mitogenic only when there is loss of cell-cell contact in vivo.

Manipulation of cell-cell adhesion using bowtie-shaped microwells

Traditional methods to study cell-cell adhesion have been limited by their inability to manipulate cell-cell interactions without simultaneously affecting other microenvironmental factors. Here we describe a novel method that enables the culture of cells with precise simultaneous control of both cell-cell and cell-substratum adhesion. Using microfabricated stamps of poly(dimethylsiloxane), we construct bowtie-shaped agarose microwells into which cells can be cultured. The degree to which cells spread is controlled by the size of the microwell; cell-cell contacts form between neighboring cells within the microwell. This chapter describes the details of stamp fabrication, agarose microwell construction, and cell culture in micropatterned substrata.

Change in annexin A3 expression by regulatory factors of hepatocyte growth in primary cultured rat hepatocytes

We have recently reported that annexin (Anx) A3 expression is necessary for hepatocyte growth in cultured rat hepatocytes seeded at half the subconfluent density on collagen. In the present study, we investigated the effects of various regulatory factors of hepatocyte growth on AnxA3 expression. AnxA3 expression was significantly reduced in hepatocytes cultured under various growth inhibitory conditions such as presence of dexamethasone, culture at subconfluent cell density, and on EHS-Matrigel and lactose-carrying styrene polymer. On the other hand, hepatocyte growth factor and epidermal growth factor, stimulators of hepatocyte growth, significantly increased AnxA3 expression in hepatocytes cultured on EHS-Matrigel. These results show close correlation between known stimulatory or inhibitory actions of various factors to hepatocyte growth and increase or decrease in AnxA3 expression, and suggest the involvement of AnxA3 in their regulation of hepatocyte growth.

Culture of bovine hepatocytes: a non-perfusion technique for cell isolation

In this work we have studied the isolation and culture of mature bovine hepatocytes on plastic dishes without exogenous matrix. The liver has been disaggregated in a collagenase solution instead of undergoing a perfusion step. After a few days in culture, the plates showed several clusters of different cell types. Although the average yield was 1.60+/-0.57x10(8) viable liver cells per gram of tissue, these cultures were formed by non-parenchymal cells and only very few or none by parenchymal cells. In these cultures, actin structures used as a marker for Stellate (Ito) cells have been visualized by immunocytochemical techniques. In order to increase the proportion of parenchymal cells a centrifugation on Percoll, which separates cell sub-populations, has been introduced. Though the yield was lower than in the previous method, these pre-purified cultures were only composed of hepatocytes. It has been shown that these cells exhibited albumin synthesis, which is a specific hepatocytes function. In addition, these cultures were capable of producing metabolites of 7-ethoxycoumarin at a higher rate than non purified cell cultures. Therefore this simplified procedure for the isolation and culture of functional and viable hepatocytes may be applied for in vitro studies in bovine.

The effect of EGF and the comitogen, norepinephrine, on the proliferative responses of fresh and cryopreserved rat and mouse hepatocytes

The effect of cryopreservation on the proliferative response of fresh and cryopreserved (CP) rat and mouse hepatocytes was studied. Of the parameters measured, incorporation of 3H-thymidine and bromodeoxyuridine (BdrU) incorporation were the most sensitive and LDH content was the least sensitive. The optimal seeding density for epidermal growth factor (EGF)-stimulated proliferative response in fresh rat and mouse hepatocytes was 1.8 x 10(4) cells/cm2 and 2.1 x 10(4) cells/cm2, respectively. 3H-thymidine incorporation by fresh rat and mouse hepatocytes was maximal in cultures treated with 10 and 5 ng/ml EGF, respectively. The cell attachment of fresh rat hepatocytes after 48 h was higher (68%) than CP (42%), therefore, the CP hepatocyte seeding density was increased to 7.1 x 10(4) cells/cm2 so that the cell number after 48 h was the same as fresh hepatocytes. Using the adjusted seeding density, the 3H-thymidine and BdrU incorporation into fresh and CP rat hepatocytes was equivalent. The attachment efficiencies of fresh and CP mouse hepatocytes were the same, therefore, no adjustment was needed. The proliferative response (3H-thymidine incorporation and DNA content) to EGF was the same in fresh and CP mouse hepatocytes. The comitogen, norepinephrine (NE), increased the proliferative response to EGF to the same extent in both fresh and CP rat hepatocytes. In summary, cryopreserved rat and mouse hepatocytes retain their ability to proliferate in culture. Adjustment and monitoring of the seeding density is of high importance, especially with rat hepatocytes, which lose some attachment capacity after cryopreservation. The secondary mitogenic effect of NE is also retained by cryopreserved rat hepatocytes, suggesting that these cells retain alpha1-receptor function.

Transglutaminase differentially regulates growth signalling in rat perivenous and periportal hepatocytes

The influence of transglutaminase 2 (TG2) activity on the proliferative effect of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and on EGF receptor affinity in periportal hepatocytes (PPH) and perivenous hepatocytes (PVH) has been investigated using a primary culture system. PPH and PVH subpopulations have been isolated using the digitonin/collagenase perfusion technique. DNA synthesis was assessed by [3H] thymidine incorporation into hepatocytes. The assay for binding of [125I] EGF to cultured hepatocytes was analysed by Scatchard plot analysis. Pretreatment with the TG2 inhibitor monodansylcadaverine (MDC) greatly increased EGF-induced DNA synthesis in both PPH and PVH. Furthermore, [125I] EGF binding studies in PVH treated with MDC indicated that high-affinity EGF receptor expression was markedly up-regulated, whereas in PPH, there was no significant effect. Treatment with retinoic acid (RA), an inducer of TG2 expression, significantly decreased EGF-induced DNA synthesis in both PPH and PVH. Binding studies in the presence of RA revealed that the high-affinity EGF receptor was down-regulated and completely absent in both PPH and PVH. These results suggest that TG2 was involved in the differential growth capacities of PPH and PVH through down-regulation of high-affinity EGF receptors.

Cytomimetic engineering of hepatocyte morphogenesis and function by substrate-based presentation of acellular E-cadherin

Although cadherin-mediated intercellular contacts can be integral to the maintenance of functionally competent hepatocytes in vitro, the ability to engineer hepatocellular differentiated function via acellular E-cadherin has yet to be thoroughly explored. To investigate the potential of substrate-presented, acellular E-cadherin to modulate hepatocellular self-assembly and functional fate, rat hepatocytes were cultured at sparse densities on surfaces designed to display recombinant E-cadherin/Fc chimeras. On these substrates, hepatocytes were observed to recognize microdisplayed E-cadherin/Fc and responded by modulating the spatial distribution of the intracellular cadherin-complexing protein beta-catenin. Substrate-presented E-cadherin/Fc was also found to markedly alter patterns of hepatocyte morphogenesis, as cellular spreading and two-dimensional reorganization were significantly inhibited under these conditions, leading to multicellular aggregates that were considerably more three-dimensional in nature. Increasing cadherin exposure was also associated with elevated levels of albumin and urea secretion, two markers of hepatocyte differentiation, over control cultures. This suggested that cell-substrate cadherin engagement established more functionally competent hepatocellular phenotypes, coinciding with the notion that E-cadherin is a differentiation-inducing ligand for these cells. The morphogenetic and function-promoting effects of substrate-bound E-cadherin/Fc were further enhanced under conditions in which protein A was utilized as an anchoring molecule to present cadherin molecules, suggesting that ligand mobility may play an important role in the effective establishment of cell-to-substrate cadherin interactions. Interestingly, the percent increase in function detected for conditions of high cadherin exposure versus control cultures was found to be substantially higher at extremely low cell densities. This observation indicated that hepatocytes respond to substrate-presented E-cadherin even in the absence of native intercellular interactions and associated juxtacrine signaling. The incorporation of acellular E-cadherin on biomaterial substrates may thus potentially present a means to prevent hepatocellular dedifferentiation by maintaining liver-specific function in otherwise severely functionally repressive culture conditions.

Regulation of hepatic insulin-like growth factor-binding protein-1 gene expression by insulin: central role for mammalian target of rapamycin independent of forkhead box O proteins

The expression of IGF-binding protein-1 (IGFBP-1) is induced in rat liver by dexamethasone and glucagon and is completely inhibited by 100 nM insulin. Various studies have implicated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, protein kinase B (Akt), phosphorylation of the transcription factors forkhead in rhabdomyosarcoma 1 (Foxo1)/Foxo3, and the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in insulin's effect. In this study we examined insulin regulation of IGFBP-1 in both subconfluent and confluent hepatocytes. In subconfluent hepatocytes, insulin inhibition of IGFBP-1 mRNA levels was blocked by inhibiting PI3 kinase activation, and there was a corresponding inhibition of Foxo1/Foxo3 phosphorylation. In these same cells, inhibition of the insulin effect by rapamycin occurred in the presence of insulin-induced Foxo1/Foxo3 phosphorylation. In confluent hepatocytes, insulin could not activate the phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3 kinase)-Akt-Foxo1/Foxo3 pathway, but still inhibited IGFBP-1 gene expression in an mTOR-dependent manner. In subconfluent hepatocytes, the serine/threonine phosphatase inhibitor okadaic acid (100 nM) partially inhibited IGFBP-1 gene expression by 40%, but did not produce phosphorylation of either Akt or Foxo proteins. In contrast, 1 nm insulin inhibited the IGFBP-1 mRNA level by 40% and correspondingly activated Akt and Foxo1/Foxo3 phosphorylation to a level comparable to that observed with 100 nM insulin. These results suggest a potential role for a serine/threonine phosphatase(s) in the regulation of IGFBP-1 gene transcription, which is not downstream of mTOR and is independent of Akt. In conclusion, we have found that in rat liver, insulin inhibition of IGFBP-1 mRNA levels can occur in the absence of the phosphorylation of Foxo1/Foxo3, whereas activation of the mTOR pathway is both necessary and sufficient.

Analysis of the function of activin betaC subunit using recombinant protein

Activins, TGF-beta superfamily members, have multiple functions in a variety of cells and tissues. Additional activin beta subunit genes, betaC and betaE, have been identified in humans and rodents. To explore the role of activin betaC subunit, we generated recombinant human activin C using Chinese hamster ovary cells. Recombinant activin C from the conditioned medium was purified by consecutive hydrophobic, size-exclusion, and high performance liquid chromatography. SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis of the purified protein revealed that activin C formed disulfide bridges. However, activin C had no effect on the proliferation of cultured liver cells. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in erythroid differentiation and follicle stimulating hormone secretion in vitro. It was also shown that immunoreactive bands indicated the hetrodimer of activin betaC, and inhibin alpha subunits were detected in the conditioned medium from the activin C-producing cells, which were stably transfected with inhibin alpha subunit cDNA. This suggests that activin betaC subunit may have been present and that it may exert its effect as inhibin C.

Morphology of spheroidal hepatocytes within injectable, biodegradable, and thermosensitive poly(organophosphazene) hydrogel as cell delivery vehicle

An aggregate of specific cells is often regarded as a better form of single-cell in artificial organs and mammalian cell bioreactors for improved cell-specific functions. In this study, freshly harvested primary rat hepatocytes, cultivated as spheroids and entrapped in a synthetic thermoreversible extracellular matrix, were examined for differentiation morphology and enhanced liver-specific functions and compared with a control set (single-cell hepatocytes). A copolymer of poly(organophsophazene) hydrogel, an injectable, biodegradable, and thermosensitive matrix, was used to entrap hepatocytes as spheroids or single cells. In a 28-d culture period, the spheroidal hepatocytes maintained a higher viability and produced albumin and urea at constant rates, whereas the single hepatocytes showed a reduction in the level of albumin secretion in the hydrogel. The culturing of spheroidal hepatocytes is a potentially useful three-dimensional cell system for application in bioartificial liver devices and bioreactors.

Contact Inhibition of Hepatocyte Growth Regulated by Functional Association of the c-Met/Hepatocyte Growth Factor Receptor and LAR Protein-tyrosine Phosphatase

Contact inhibition, the inhibition of cell proliferation by tight cell-cell contact is a fundamental characteristic of normal cells. Using primary cultured hepatocytes, we investigated the mechanisms of contact inhibition that decrease the mitogenic activity of hepatocyte growth factor (HGF), focusing on the regulation of c-Met/HGF-receptor activation. In hepatocytes cultured at a sparse cell density, HGF stimulation induced prolonged c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation for over 5 h and a marked mitogenic response. In contrast, HGF stimulation induced transient c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation in <3 h and failed to induce mitogenic response in hepatocytes cultured at a confluent cell density. Treatment of the confluent cells with HGF plus orthovanadate, a broad spectrum protein-tyrosine phosphatase inhibitor, however, prolonged c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation for over 5 h and permitted the subsequent mitogenic response. The mitogenic response to HGF was associated with the duration of c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation even in the sparse cells. We found that the activity and expression of the protein-tyrosine phosphatase LAR increased following HGF stimulation specifically in confluent hepatocytes and not in sparse hepatocytes. LAR and c-Met were associated, and purified LAR dephosphorylated tyrosine-phosphorylated c-Met in in vitro phosphatase reactions. Furthermore, antisense oligonucleotides specific for LAR mRNA suppressed the expression of LAR, allowed prolonged c-Met tyrosine phosphorylation, and led to acquisition of a mitogenic response in hepatocytes even under the confluent condition. Thus functional association of LAR and c-Met underlies the inhibition of c-Met-mediated mitogenic signaling through the dephosphorylation of c-Met, which specifically occurs under the confluent condition.

Galactose-carrying polymers as extracellular matrices for liver tissue engineering

Extracellular matrix (ECM) plays important roles in tissue engineering because cellular growth and differentiation, in the two-dimensional cell culture as well as in the three-dimensional space of the developing organism, require ECM with which the cells can interact. Especially, the bioartificial liver-assist device or regeneration of the liver-tissue substitutes for liver tissue engineering requires a suitable ECM for hepatocyte culture because hepatocytes are anchorage-dependent cells and are highly sensitive to the ECM milieu for the maintenance of their viability and differentiated functions. Galactose-carrying synthetic ECMs derived from synthetic polymers and natural polymers bind hepatocytes through a receptor-mediated mechanism, resulting in enhanced hepatocyte functions. Attachment and functions of hepatocytes were affected by physico-chemical properties including ECM geometry as well as the type, density and orientation of galactose. Also, cellular environment, medium composition and dynamic culture system influenced liver-specific functions of hepatocytes beside ECM.

Phenotype of Hepatocyte Spheroids Behavior within Thermo-Sensitive Poly(NiPAAm-co-PEG-g-GRGDS) Hydrogel as a Cell Delivery Vehicle

Aggregates (spheroids) of specific cells are often regarded as a better form in artificial organs and mammalian cell bioreactors for improved cell-specific functions. Freshly harvested primary rat hepatocytes, cultivated as spheroids and entrapped in an adhesion molecules of Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-conjugated extracellular matrix, have been examined for differentiated morphology and enhanced liver-specific functions. A copolymer of RGD conjugated p(NiPAAm-co-PEG) hydrogel was used to entrap hepatocytes in the forms of spheroids. Over 28 days, entrapped the spheroids had a higher viability and produced albumin and urea at constant rates, while there was slight increase in cell numbers and reduction of albumin secretion in single cell culture in the hydrogel. Hepatocytes cultured in this way are a potentially useful three-dimensional cell system for application in a bioartificial liver device and bioreactor.

Three-dimensional co-culture of rat hepatocyte spheroids and NIH/3T3 fibroblasts enhances hepatocyte functional maintenance

Functional maintenance of primary hepatocytes in culture can be improved by several distinct approaches involving optimization of the extracellular matrix microenvironment, media composition and cell-cell interactions, both homotypic and heterotypic. Using a galactose-decorated surface, we have developed a method to combine these two approaches by co-culturing rat primary hepatocyte spheroids with NIH/3T3 mouse fibroblast cells. Spheroids were performed by culturing hepatocytes for 3 days on galactosylated poly(vinylidene difluoride) membrane; NIH/3T3 cells were subsequently seeded and co-cultured with the spheroids. Results showed that although NIH/3T3 cells alone responded poorly to the galactosylated PVDF surface and displayed limited attachment, NIH/3T3 fibroblasts attached to the periphery of the hepatocyte spheroids and proliferated around them. Co-cultured hepatocyte spheroids exhibited significantly higher liver-specific functions as compared to spheroids cultured alone. Albumin secretion level in this co-culture system peaked on day 11, which was 1.8- and 2.9-times higher than the peak expression level in spheroid homo-culture control in serum-free (day 3) and serum-containing media (day 4), respectively. The albumin secretion function was maintained for at least two weeks; it was 5.1 (in serum-free medium) and 17.8 (in serum-containing medium) times higher than spheroid homo-culture on day 13. Similarly, the co-culture system also expressed approximately 5.5- and 3.1-times higher 3-methylcholanthrene-induced cytochrome P450 enzymatic activity on day 14 as compared to the homo-culture control in serum-free and serum-containing medium, respectively. In conclusion, this unique co-culture system demonstrated the synergistic roles of homotypic cell-cell interaction, heterotypic cell-cell interaction, cell-substrate interaction and soluble stimuli in hepatocyte functional maintenance.

A new method to immortalize primary cultured rat hepatocytes

BACKGROUND

In conventional methods of establishing hepatocyte cell lines, the immortalizing gene alone is introduced into hepatocytes. We designed a new method in which not only the immortalizing gene, the simian virus-40 large T-antigen (SV-40 Tag) gene, but also a drug-resistant gene, under the control of an albumin enhancer/promoter, were introduced into hepatocytes to efficiently obtain immortalized hepatocyte cell lines.

METHODS

The plasmid pAPUR contains the puromycin-resistant gene under the control of an albumin enhancer/promoter, and the pSVTag contains the early region of SV-40 enhancer/promoter and the SV-40 Tag gene. Both pAPUR and pSVTag were transferred into isolated rat hepatocytes by electroporation. After these cells were cultured on a collagen-coated dish for 24 hours, puromycin selection was started. Expression levels of albumin, alpha-fetoprotein (AFP), SV-40 Tag, and cytokeratin 19 (CK 19) in the transformed cells were evaluated by western analysis, immunocytochemical staining, and RT PCR.

RESULTS

Approximately 3 weeks after transfection, five or six colonies appeared on the dish. Twenty strains were obtained by cloning these cells. All strains that were similar to immature hepatocytes expressed albumin and SV-40 Tag, although CK 19 was not detected. AFP expression was detected in 33% of these strains.

CONCLUSIONS

All clones cotransfected by pAPUR and pSVTag expressed albumin. Our new method may be useful to establish hepatocyte cell lines.

Stimulation of hepatocyte survival and suppression of CCl4-induced liver injury by the adenovirally introduced C/EBPbeta gene

Gene therapy has attracted attention as a potentially effective alternative to liver transplantation for the treatment of hepatic failure. We chose the C/EBPbeta gene, which plays vital roles in liver regeneration, as a candidate for gene therapy, and examined its effect on hepatocyte survival and the suppression of liver inflammation. C/EBPbeta gene overexpression significantly maintained hepatocyte viability during 12 days of the culture. Urea synthesis ability, which is a liver-specific function, in Adv-C/EBPbeta-infected hepatocytes was stably maintained during the culture, but the activity per cell was significantly lower than that in non-infected cells. On the contrary, DNA synthesis activity in Adv-C/EBPbeta-infected hepatocytes was significantly higher than that in non-infected cells. COX-2 was induced in Adv-C/EBPbeta-infected hepatocytes, and the addition of NS398, a specific inhibitor of COX-2, suppressed the viability-maintenance effect. COX-2 was thus shown to be involved in the survival effect of C/EBPbeta gene. The introduction of the C/EBPbeta gene into liver-damaged mice significantly suppressed the serum AST and ALT activities. These results indicate that C/EBPbeta appears to be a survival factor under stressful conditions, and the introduction of the gene has therapeutic function against liver injury.

Engineering the hepatocyte differentiation-proliferation balance by acellular cadherin micropresentation

The successful development of bioartificial and cell-based liver support systems relies on the identification of molecular mechanisms controlling the balance between hepatocellular proliferation and differentiation. Although a definitive function-inductive role for the cell-cell adhesion molecule, E-cadherin, was established through lateral cadherin-cadherin engagement in hepatocyte cocultures (Brevia, T.A., and Moghe, P.V. Biotechnol. Bioeng. 76, 295, 2001), the roles of other modes of cadherin presentation are not well understood. Further, alternative cadherin display configurations promoting cell growth/proliferative pathways, a major requisite for sustainable engineered tissues, remain to be identified. In this report, we employed protein A-functionalized polymeric microsphere substrates that specifically bound self-dimerizing cadherin-IgG/Fc fusion chimeras via their Fc regions, thereby orienting them outward for active adhesion, and presented the E-cadherin chimeras basally to cultured rat hepatocytes to study the effects of cadherin display on cell proliferative potential and differentiated function. In contrast to the previously documented function-inductive roles of laterally expressed cadherin, basal acellular cadherin presentation resulted in an increase in hepatocyte DNA synthesis and cell divisions, accompanied by a decrease in the expression of a key marker of liver-specific function, albumin message levels. Next, we probed the relative effect of basal exogenous display of acellular cadherins on the inductive phase of differentiation within hepatocyte cocultures with cadherin-expressing L929 cells. When acellular cadherins were applied to hepatocyte cocultures involving chaperone cell-mediated cadherin presentation, the previously reported function-inductive effects of cadherins on hepatocyte function were reversed, resulting in lower levels of albumin and urea secretion indicating a dominance of acellular cadherin effects. Our results demonstrate that cadherins are important regulators of the balance between hepatocyte differentiation and proliferation, and furthermore that the direction of balance shift may be dependent on the method of cadherin presentation. Thus, the geometric display of cadherin could be a potential parameter to switch hepatocyte functional-proliferative balance and may aid in customizing scaffolds for regulating hepatic tissue dynamics.

Differential change of Ins-P3-Ca2+ signaling during culture of rat hepatocytes

Decrease of alpha-adrenergic responses during primary culture of rat hepatocytes was studied. Activation of glycogen phosphorylase by phenylephrine was decreased in the early stage of the culture (within 6 h), however, Ins-P3 production was almost intact until 12 h of the culture and then declined. alpha-Adrenoceptor-mediated Ca2+-mobilization and Ins-P3-induced Ca2+ release from microsomal fractions were decreased in the early stage of the culture, similar to the above change of phosphorylase activation. We found that decrease of Ins-P3-binding sites in the early stage of the culture was the cause of differential change of Ins-P3-Ca2+ signaling during the culture of hepatocytes. Similar changes described above were also observed in vasopressin-induced responses. However, the changes of Ins-P3-Ca2+ signaling did not occur in a high-cell density culture of rat hepatocytes. In conclusion, the loss of phenylephrine- and vasopressin-induced responses in cultured liver cells appear to be due to change of Ins-P3-binding sites as well as decreased Ins-P3 production due to reduction of receptor numbers.

The role of insulin, glucagon, dexamethasone, and leptin in the regulation of ketogenesis and glycogen storage in primary cultures of porcine hepatocytes prepared from 60 kg pigs

A study was conducted to elucidate hormonal control of ketogenesis and glycogen deposition in primary cultures of porcine hepatocytes. Hepatocytes were isolated from pigs (54-68 kg) by collagenase perfusion and seeded into collagen-coated T-25 flasks. Monolayers were established in medium containing fetal bovine serum for 1 day and switched to a serum-free medium for the remainder of the culture period. Hepatocytes were maintained in DMEM/M199 containing 1% DMSO, dexamethasone (10(-6) or 10(-7) M), linoleic acid (3.4 x 10(-5) M), and carnitine (10(-3) M) for 3 days. On the first day of serum-free culture, insulin was added at 1 or 100 ng/ml and glucagon was added at 0, 1, or 100 ng/ml. Recombinant human leptin (200 ng/ml) was added during the final 24 h; medium and all cells were harvested on the third day. Concentrations of acetoacetate and beta-hydroxybutyrate (ketone bodies) in media and glycogen deposition in the cellular compartment were determined. Ketogenesis was highly stimulated by glucagon (1 and 100 ng/ml) and inhibited by insulin. In contrast, glycogen deposition was stimulated by insulin and attenuated by glucagon; high insulin was also associated with a reduction in the ketone body ratio (acetoacetate:beta-hydroxybutyrate). High levels of dexamethasone stimulated ketogenesis, but inhibited glycogen deposition at low insulin. Culture of cells with leptin for 24 h, over the range of insulin, glucagon, and dexamethasone concentrations had no effect on either glycogen deposition or ketogenesis. These data suggest that while adult porcine hepatocytes are indeed sensitive to hormonal manipulation, leptin has no direct influence on hepatic energy metabolism in swine.

EGF receptor-mediated, c-Src-dependent, activation of Stat5b is downregulated in mitogenically responsive hepatocytes

Signal transducer and activator of transcription (STAT) proteins may be activated by epidermal growth factor (EGF), but their role in EGF receptor-mediated mitogenic signaling is not clear. We previously showed that Stat5b was activated by EGF in rat hepatocytes in primary monolayer culture. In the present study, we found that EGF induced tyrosine phosphorylation of Stat5b both on Tyr-699, which correlated with specific DNA binding activity, and also on other tyrosine residues. The Src tyrosine kinase inhibitor CGP77675 blocked the EGF-induced activation of Stat5b, but did not affect the Stat5b activation by growth hormone (GH) or prolactin (PRL). The Stat5b response to EGF was most pronounced soon (3 h) after plating (early G(1)) and at high cell density (50,000 hepatocytes per cm(2)). However, at this cell density EGF did not stimulate DNA synthesis. In hepatocytes at 24 h of culturing (mid/late G(1)) with 20,000 cells per cm(2), EGF induced strong phosphorylation of the EGF receptor, as well as Shc and ERK, and stimulated DNA synthesis, but did not activate Stat5b, although the Stat5b response to GH or PRL was retained. A strong GH-induced Stat5b activation neither influenced the DNA synthesis alone nor enhanced the mitogenic effect of EGF. The results show that EGF induces tyrosine phosphorylation and DNA-binding activity of Stat5b in a manner different from GH and PRL, apparently by a Src-dependent mechanism. The data also provide further evidence that Stat5b is not required for mitogenic signaling from the EGF receptor.

Review-progress in concept and practice of growing anchorage-dependent mammalian cells in three dimension

Tissue culture has played a major role in the rapid advances made in medical science in the past 50 yr. The full potential of the technique, however, is limited by the fact that growth of cells is usually restricted to a monolayer accompanied by major decreases in many of their tissue-specific functions. This has been shown to be due, in large part, to the inadequate oxygenation of cells growing in tissue culture dishes. Studies that show that the high charge density and rigidity of the plastic and glass surfaces used for culture are also major factors limiting growth of cells to a monolayer, are reviewed. A new culture system has been developed in which cells are grown on substrata made using perfluorocarbons (PFCs) coated with collagen type 1 and other adhesive factors. Perfluorocarbons have a much higher solubility for oxygen than water and have been used as oxygen delivery systems to protect cells from hypoxia. These new PFC-based substrata can provide both the optimal level of oxygen cells need to maintain differentiated functions and the flexible and weaker type of adhesion that allows cells to round up, interact with each other, and when provided with adequate nutritional support, to grow in three dimension.

Dietary regulation of expression of glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase

The family of enzymes involved in lipogenesis is a model system for understanding how a cell adapts to dietary energy in the form of carbohydrate versus energy in the form of triacylglycerol. Glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) is unique in this group of enzymes in that it participates in multiple metabolic pathways: reductive biosynthesis, including lipogenesis; protection from oxidative stress; and cellular growth. G6PD activity is enhanced by dietary carbohydrates and is inhibited by dietary polyunsaturated fats. These changes in G6PD activity are a consequence of changes in the expression of the G6PD gene. Nutrients can regulate the expression of genes at both transcriptional and posttranscriptional steps. Most lipogenic enzymes undergo large changes in the rate of gene transcription in response to dietary changes; however, G6PD is regulated at a step subsequent to transcription. This step is involved in the rate of synthesis of the mature mRNA in the nucleus, specifically regulation of the efficiency of splicing of the nascent G6PD transcript. Understanding the mechanisms by which nutrients alter nuclear posttranscriptional events will help uncover new information on the breadth of mechanisms involved in gene regulation.

Enhanced proliferation and differentiation of rat hepatocytes cultured with bone marrow stromal cells

Liver transplantation is the only clinically effective method of treating acute liver failure. However, wider application of this therapeutic modality is restricted primarily by shortage of donor organs. In the search for alternative methods of liver replacement therapy, investigators have focused on transplantation of normal allogeneic hepatocytes and on the development of liver support systems utilizing isolated hepatocytes. Since all human livers suitable for cell harvest are being used for transplantation, hepatocyte therapy using human tissue would require growing of cells in vitro. Unfortunately, although hepatocytes have tremendous capacity to proliferate in vivo, their ability to grow in culture is severely limited. Stromal cells from bone marrow and other blood-forming organs have been found to support hematopoiesis. In this paper, we show that bone marrow-derived stromal cells (BMSCs) enhance proliferation and support differentiation of rat hepatocytes in culture. Further, we demonstrate that in hepatocyte/BMSC co-cultures, clonal expansion of small hepatocytes (SH) is increased. Using semipermeable membrane cultures, we established that direct cell-cell contact is necessary for stimulation of cell proliferation. We also show that BMSCs which are in direct contact with hepatocytes and SH colonies express Jagged1. This suggests a potential role for Notch signaling in the observed effects. Finally, we present evidence that the expression and activity of liver specific transcription factors, CCAAT/enhancer binding proteins and liver specific key enzymes such as tryptophan 2,3-dioxygenase, are improved in hepatocyte/BMSC co-cultures. In conclusion, results of this study indicate that BMSCs could facilitate proliferation and differentiation of primary rat hepatocytes and their progenitors (SH) in vitro.