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Zhou Y, Du W, Chen Y, Li L, Xiao X, Xu Y, Yang W, Hu X, Wang B, Zhang J, Jiang Q, Wang Y. Pathogen detection via inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry analysis with nanoparticles. Talanta 2024; 277:126325. [PMID: 38833906 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2024.126325] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 04/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/06/2024]
Abstract
Infections caused by viruses and bacteria pose a significant threat to global public health, emphasizing the critical importance of timely and precise detection methods. Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS), a contemporary approach for pathogen detection, offers distinct advantages such as high sensitivity, a wide linear range, and multi-index capabilities. This review elucidates the underexplored application of ICP-MS in conjunction with functional nanoparticles (NPs) for the identification of viruses and bacteria. The review commences with an elucidation of the underlying principles, procedures, target pathogens, and NP requirements for this innovative approach. Subsequently, a thorough analysis of the advantages and limitations associated with these techniques is provided. Furthermore, the review delves into a comprehensive examination of the challenges encountered when utilizing NPs and ICP-MS for pathogen detection, culminating in a forward-looking assessment of the potential pathways for advancement in this domain. Thus, this review contributes novel perspectives to the field of pathogen detection in biomedicine by showcasing the promising synergy of ICP-MS and NPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yujie Zhou
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Wenli Du
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Yuzuo Chen
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Lei Li
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Xuanyu Xiao
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xu
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Wenjuan Yang
- Department of Gastroenterology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Xuefeng Hu
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China
| | - Baoning Wang
- West China School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610041, China.
| | - Jieyu Zhang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China.
| | - Qing Jiang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
| | - Yunbing Wang
- National Engineering Research Center for Biomaterials, Sichuan University, 29 Wangjiang Road, Chengdu, Sichuan, 610065, China
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Gulati S, Singh P, Diwan A, Mongia A, Kumar S. Functionalized gold nanoparticles: promising and efficient diagnostic and therapeutic tools for HIV/AIDS. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:1252-1266. [PMID: 34095839 PMCID: PMC8126886 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00298d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Functionalized gold nanoparticles are recognized as promising vehicles in the diagnosis and treatment of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) owing to their excellent biocompatibility with biomolecules (like DNA or RNA), their potential for multivalency and their unique optical and structural properties. In this context, this review article focuses on the diverse detection abilities and delivery and uptake methodologies of HIV by targeting genes and proteins using gold nanoparticles on the basis of different shapes and sizes in order to promote its effective expression. In addition, recent trends in gold nanoparticle mediated HIV detection, delivery and uptake and treatment are highlighted considering their cytotoxic effects on healthy human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shikha Gulati
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi Delhi-110021 India
| | - Parinita Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi Delhi-110021 India
| | - Anchita Diwan
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi Delhi-110021 India
| | - Ayush Mongia
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi Delhi-110021 India
| | - Sanjay Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Sri Venkateswara College, University of Delhi Delhi-110021 India
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3
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Understanding Flavivirus Capsid Protein Functions: The Tip of the Iceberg. Pathogens 2020; 9:pathogens9010042. [PMID: 31948047 PMCID: PMC7168633 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens9010042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2019] [Revised: 01/01/2020] [Accepted: 01/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Flaviviruses are enveloped positive-sense single-stranded RNA arboviruses, infectious to humans and many other animals and are transmitted primarily via tick or mosquito vectors. Capsid is the primary structural protein to interact with viral genome within virus particles and is therefore necessary for efficient packaging. However, in cells, capsid interacts with many proteins and nucleic acids and we are only beginning to understand the broad range of functions of flaviviral capsids. It is known that capsid dimers interact with the membrane of lipid droplets, aiding in both viral packaging and storage of capsid prior to packaging. However, capsid dimers can bind a range of nucleic acid templates in vitro, and likely interact with a range of targets during the flavivirus lifecycle. Capsid may interact with host RNAs, resulting in altered RNA splicing and RNA transcription. Capsid may also bind short interfering-RNAs and has been proposed to sequester these species to protect flaviviruses from the invertebrate siRNA pathways. Capsid can also be found in the nucleolus, where it wreaks havoc on ribosome biogenesis. Here we review flavivirus capsid structure, nucleic acid interactions and how these give rise to multiple functions. We also discuss how these features might be exploited either in the design of effective antivirals or novel vaccine strategies.
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Cheng S, Brooks CL. Protein-Protein Interfaces in Viral Capsids Are Structurally Unique. J Mol Biol 2015; 427:3613-3624. [PMID: 26375252 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2015.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2015] [Revised: 08/08/2015] [Accepted: 09/04/2015] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Viral capsids exhibit elaborate and symmetrical architectures of defined sizes and remarkable mechanical properties not seen with cellular macromolecular complexes. Given the uniqueness of the higher-order organization of viral capsid proteins in the virosphere, we explored the question of whether the patterns of protein-protein interactions within viral capsids are distinct from those in generic protein complexes. Our comparative analysis involving a non-redundant set of 551 inter-subunit interfaces in viral capsids from VIPERdb and 20,014 protein-protein interfaces in non-capsid protein complexes from the Protein Data Bank found 418 generic protein-protein interfaces that share similar physicochemical patterns with some protein-protein interfaces in the capsid set, using the program PCalign we developed for comparing protein-protein interfaces. This overlap in the structural space of protein-protein interfaces is significantly small, with a p-value <0.0001, based on a permutation test on the total set of protein-protein interfaces. Furthermore, the generic protein-protein interfaces that bear similarity in their spatial and chemical arrangement with capsid ones are mostly small in size with fewer than 20 interfacial residues, which results from the relatively limited choices of natural design for small interfaces rather than having significant biological implications in terms of functional relationships. We conclude based on this study that protein-protein interfaces in viral capsids are non-representative of patterns in the smaller, more compact cellular protein complexes. Our finding highlights the design principle of building large biological containers from repeated, self-assembling units and provides insights into specific targets for antiviral drug design for improved efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanshan Cheng
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2218, USA.
| | - Charles L Brooks
- Department of Computational Medicine and Bioinformatics, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2218, USA; Department of Chemistry, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA; Biophysics Program, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1055, USA.
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Turpin JA. The next generation of HIV/AIDS drugs: novel and developmental antiHIV drugs and targets. Expert Rev Anti Infect Ther 2014; 1:97-128. [PMID: 15482105 DOI: 10.1586/14787210.1.1.97] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
There are presently 42 million people worldwide living with HIV/AIDS, the majority of which have limited access to antiretrovirals. Even if worldwide penetration was possible, our current chemotherapeutic strategies still suffer from issues of cost, patient compliance, deleterious acute and chronic side effects, emerging single and multidrug resistance, and generalized treatment and economic issues. Even our best antiretroviral therapeutic strategy, highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART), falls short of completely suppressing HIV replication. Therefore, expansion of current therapeutic options by discovering new antiretrovirals and targets will be critical in the coming years. This review addresses the current status of reverse transcriptase and protease inhibitor development, and summarizes the progress in emerging classes of HIV inhibitors, including entry (T-20, T-1249), coreceptor (SCH-C, SCH-D), integrase (beta-Diketos) and p7 nucleocapsid Zn finger inhibitors (thioesters and PATEs). In addition, the processes of virus entry, PIC transport to the nucleus, HIV interaction with nuclear pores, Tat function, Rev function and virus budding (Tsg101 and ubiquitination) are examined, and proof of concept inhibitors and potential antiviral targets discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jim A Turpin
- HowPin Consulting International, PO Box B Frederick, MD 21705, USA.
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Kheiri F, Sabzi R, Jannatdoust E, Shojaeefar E, Sedghi H. A novel amperometric immunosensor based on acetone-extracted propolis for the detection of the HIV-1 p24 antigen. Biosens Bioelectron 2011; 26:4457-63. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2011] [Revised: 05/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Tian B, He M, Tan Z, Tang S, Hewlett I, Chen S, Jin Y, Yang M. Synthesis and antiviral evaluation of new N-acylhydrazones containing glycine residue. Chem Biol Drug Des 2011; 77:189-98. [PMID: 21306567 DOI: 10.1111/j.1747-0285.2010.01050.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
N-acylhydrazones containing glycine residue 3a-j and 8a-h were synthesized as HIV-1 capsid protein assembly inhibitors. The structures of the novel N-acylhydrazone derivatives were characterized using different spectroscopic methods. Antiviral activity demonstrated that compound 8c bearing 4-methylphenyl moiety was the most active with low cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baohe Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University Health Science Center, PO Box 261, Beijing 100191, China
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8
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Screening and evaluation of thiourea derivatives for their HIV capsid and human cyclophilin A inhibitory activity. Med Chem Res 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s00044-010-9315-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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9
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Li J, Tan Z, Tang S, Hewlett I, Pang R, He M, He S, Tian B, Chen K, Yang M. Discovery of dual inhibitors targeting both HIV-1 capsid and human cyclophilin A to inhibit the assembly and uncoating of the viral capsid. Bioorg Med Chem 2009; 17:3177-88. [PMID: 19328002 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2009.02.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2009] [Revised: 02/19/2009] [Accepted: 02/21/2009] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
HIV-1 assembly and disassembly (uncoating) processes are critical for the HIV-1 replication. HIV-1 capsid (CA) and human cyclophilin A (CypA) play essential roles in these processes. We designed and synthesized a series of thiourea compounds as HIV-1 assembly and disassembly dual inhibitors targeting both HIV-1 CA protein and human CypA. The SIV-induced syncytium antiviral evaluation indicated that all of the inhibitors displayed antiviral activities in SIV-infected CEM cells at the concentration of 0.6-15.8 microM for 50% of maximum effective rate. Their abilities to bind CA and CypA were determined by ultraviolet spectroscopic analysis, fluorescence binding affinity and PPIase inhibition assay. Assembly studies in vitro demonstrated that the compounds could potently disrupt CA assembly with a dose-dependent manner. All of these molecules could bind CypA with binding affinities (Kd values) of 51.0-512.8 microM. Fifteen of the CypA binding compounds showed potent PPIase inhibitory activities (IC(50) values<1 microM) while they could not bind either to HIV-1 Protease or to HIV-1 Integrase in the enzyme assays. These results suggested that 15 compounds could block HIV-1 replication by inhibiting the PPIase activity of CypA to interfere with capsid disassembly and disrupting CA assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiebo Li
- State Key Laboratory of Natural and Biomimetic Drugs, Peking University, PO Box 261, Beijing 100191, China
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GAN N, LI TH, LEI JP, WANG LY, YANG X. Electrochemical Immunosensor for Human Immunodeficiency Virus p24 Antigen Based on Mercapto Succinic Acid Hydrazide Copper Monolayer Modified Gold Electrode. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(08)60064-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Kelly BN, Kyere S, Kinde I, Tang C, Howard BR, Robinson H, Sundquist WI, Summers MF, Hill CP. Structure of the antiviral assembly inhibitor CAP-1 complex with the HIV-1 CA protein. J Mol Biol 2007; 373:355-66. [PMID: 17826792 PMCID: PMC2066180 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2007.07.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2007] [Accepted: 07/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The CA domain of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Gag polyprotein plays critical roles in both the early and late phases of viral replication and is therefore an attractive antiviral target. Compounds with antiviral activity were recently identified that bind to the N-terminal domain of CA (CA N) and inhibit capsid assembly during viral maturation. We have determined the structure of the complex between CA N and the antiviral assembly inhibitor N-(3-chloro-4-methylphenyl)-N'-{2-[({5-[(dimethylamino)-methyl]-2-furyl}-methyl)-sulfanyl]ethyl}-urea) (CAP-1) using a combination of NMR spectroscopy and X-ray crystallography. The protein undergoes a remarkable conformational change upon CAP-1 binding, in which Phe32 is displaced from its buried position in the protein core to open a deep hydrophobic cavity that serves as the ligand binding site. The aromatic ring of CAP-1 inserts into the cavity, with the urea NH groups forming hydrogen bonds with the backbone oxygen of Val59 and the dimethylamonium group interacting with the side-chains of Glu28 and Glu29. Elements that could be exploited to improve binding affinity are apparent in the structure. The displacement of Phe32 by CAP-1 appears to be facilitated by a strained main-chain conformation, which suggests a potential role for a Phe32 conformational switch during normal capsid assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian N Kelly
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT 84112-5650, USA
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12
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Ventura CA, Giannone I, Musumeci T, Pignatello R, Ragni L, Landolfi C, Milanese C, Paolino D, Puglisi G. Physico-chemical characterization of disoxaril-dimethyl-beta-cyclodextrin inclusion complex and in vitro permeation studies. Eur J Med Chem 2006; 41:233-40. [PMID: 16387393 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2005.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2005] [Revised: 11/21/2005] [Accepted: 11/22/2005] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
In this work we evaluated the ability of 2,6-di-O-methyl-beta-cyclodextrin (DM-beta-Cyd) to include the anti-rhinovirus drug Disoxaril (WIN 51711), increasing its water solubility and stability. The complex, prepared by kneading method, was characterized in the solid state by differential scanning calorimetry and in aqueous solution using circular dichroism and NMR spectroscopy. The formation of 1:1 and 1:2 drug-Cyd complexes was hypothesized. Stability constants for both complexes were determined on the basis of an Ap-type phase solubility diagrams and evidenced a very high stability for the 1:1 complex. Thermodynamic parameters of the binding process showed the existence of classical hydrophobic interactions in the 1:1 complex with the formation of a less ordered system after complexation. An enthalpic contribution rather than an entropic one accompanied the association of the second Cyd molecule. DM-beta-Cyd was able to significantly increase water solubility of WIN 51711, from 0.000123 to 0.47142 mg/ml. Free drug shows a very low water stability, it is completely hydrolyzed after 36 h in PBS (pH 7.0), at 4 degrees C. In the presence of DM-beta-Cyd only a 10% of WIN 51711 was degraded, to the same conditions, after 12 days. DM-beta-Cyd increases the permeation of WIN 51711 across excised bovine nasal mucosa mounted on Franz cells, with respect to the free drug. Nevertheless, the permeation process had a lag time of 2 h so that the drug might assure its pharmacological activity on the outer surface of the mucosa. In vivo studies on rabbits evidenced that WIN 51711 is well tolerated, having no observable effect on the nasal mucosa following repeated administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Anna Ventura
- Pharmaco-Chemical Department, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Messina, Viale Annunziata I, 98168 Messina, Italy.
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Auewarakul P, Wacharapornin P, Srichatrapimuk S, Chutipongtanate S, Puthavathana P. Uncoating of HIV-1 requires cellular activation. Virology 2005; 337:93-101. [PMID: 15882886 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2005.02.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2004] [Revised: 12/30/2004] [Accepted: 02/23/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Uncoating is an essential step in viral replication cycle. Little is known about the mechanism and requirement of HIV uncoating. Using an in vitro uncoating model, we demonstrate here that the uncoating of HIV-1 was efficiently induced by lysate from activated CD4+ lymphocytes, while quiescent CD4+ lymphocyte lysate was unable to uncoat HIV-1 core. The uncoating activity was associated with an induction of in vitro reverse transcription of the viral genome. Using CD4+ lymphocytes that were arrested in cell cycle, we showed that the uncoating activity required transition of cells from G(0)/G(1a) into G(1b) stage. These results strongly suggested a requirement of cell cycle-dependent specific factors for HIV-1 uncoating. The putative HIV-1 uncoating factors could be fractionated from cell lysate by gel filtration chromatography.
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Affiliation(s)
- Prasert Auewarakul
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine Siriraj Hospital, Mahidol University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Tang C, Loeliger E, Kinde I, Kyere S, Mayo K, Barklis E, Sun Y, Huang M, Summers MF. Antiviral inhibition of the HIV-1 capsid protein. J Mol Biol 2003; 327:1013-20. [PMID: 12662926 DOI: 10.1016/s0022-2836(03)00289-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
During the assembly stage of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) replication cycle, several thousand copies of the viral Gag polyprotein associate at the cell membrane and bud to form an immature, non-infectious virion. Gag is subsequently cleaved by the protease, which liberates the capsid proteins for assembly into the polyprotein shell of the central core particle (or capsid) of the mature virus. Viral infectivity is critically dependent on capsid formation and stability, making the capsid protein a potentially attractive antiviral target. We have identified compounds that bind to an apical site on the N-terminal domain of the HIV-1 capsid protein and inhibit capsid assembly in vitro. One compound, N-(3-chloro-4-methylphenyl)-N'-[2-[([5-[(dimethylamino)-methyl]-2-furyl]-methyl)-sulfanyl]ethyl]urea) (CAP-1), is well tolerated in cell cultures, enabling in vivo antiviral and mechanistic studies. CAP-1 inhibits HIV-1 infectivity in a dose-dependent manner, but does not interfere with viral entry, reverse transcription, integration, proteolytic processing, or virus production, indicating a novel antiviral mechanism. Significantly, virus particles generated in the presence of CAP-1 exhibit heterogeneous sizes and abnormal core morphologies, consistent with inhibited CA-CA interactions during virus assembly and maturation. These findings lay the groundwork for the development of assembly inhibitors as a new class of therapeutic agents for the treatment of AIDS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Tang
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, Maryland 21250-5398, USA
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Gupta S, Arora K, Gupta A, Chaudhary VK. Gag-derived proteins of HIV-1 isolates from Indian patients: cloning, expression, and purification of p24 of B- and C-subtypes. Protein Expr Purif 2000; 19:321-8. [PMID: 10910720 DOI: 10.1006/prep.2000.1266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A simple and efficient method for hyperexpression in Escherichia coli and purification of capsid protein, p24, of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) of both B- and C-subtypes is described. DNA-encoding p24 of C-subtype was cloned from C-subtype gag sequence which was obtained by PCR amplification using DNA extracted from peripheral blood mononuclear lymphocytes (PBMLs) of an HIV-1-infected patient from India. DNA-encoding p24B protein was amplified directly by two-step PCR using genomic DNA obtained from PBMLs of an HIV-infected individual. A T7 promoter-based expression system was optimized for hyperexpression of p24 in the soluble form. Both p24 (B- and C-subtype) were purified to near homogeneity using conventional chromatographic techniques. Purification of p24 (C subtype) was described for the first time with yield of 53 mg from 1 liter of culture. The yield of p24 (B-subtype) was 67 mg from 1 liter of culture, which was severalfold better than reported earlier. The immunoreactivity of both types of p24 to sera from HIV-infected individuals was comparable. This report describes a simple, highly efficient, and reproducible method for obtaining large quantities of highly pure p24 of both B- and C-subtype, which can be used for structural, biochemical, and immunological characterization and, eventually, for diagnostic and prognostic applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Gupta
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Delhi South Campus, Benito Juarez Road, New Delhi, 110 021, India
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16
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Murray MA, Babe LM. Inhibitory effect of dibenzofuran and dibenzosuberol derivatives on rhinovirus replication in vitro; effective prevention of viral entry by dibenzosuberenone. Antiviral Res 1999; 44:123-31. [PMID: 10669262 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-3542(99)00061-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
A series of derivatives of dibenzofuran and dibenzosuberol block rhinovirus replication in vitro as judged by their ability to hinder the cytopathic effect in cells infected with HRV14 or HRV16. Both the number and the size of viral plaques were reduced effectively by treatment with these compounds in a dose-dependent fashion, thus affecting viral spread. The compound 2-hydroxy-3-dibenzofuran carboxylic acid was equally effective against HRV16 and HRV14, with IC50 values of 25 microM in cytopathy assays. Dibenzosuberenone showed minor differences in selectivity, with IC50 values of 10 and 30 microM for HRV16 and HRV14 cytopathy, respectively. Likewise, dibenzosuberenone effectively prevented the production of HRV16 proteins, viral RNA, and infectious virus particles when present at concentrations above 30 microM. Time-of-addition experiments show that compounds must be administered before or during the viral adsorption step in order to be effective antivirals. Dibenzosuberenone can block the adsorption of viral particles on to cells, preventing further steps in the replication cycle, but is not effective as a direct inactivating agent. These compounds likely interact with viral capsid proteins, affecting receptor interactions required for attachment and subsequent entry into cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Murray
- Axys Pharmaceuticals Inc., South San Francisco, CA 94080, USA
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17
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Garg R, Gupta SP, Gao H, Babu MS, Debnath AK, Hansch C. Comparative Quantitative Structureminus signActivity Relationship Studies on Anti-HIV Drugs. Chem Rev 1999; 99:3525-3602. [PMID: 11849030 DOI: 10.1021/cr9703358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 204] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rajni Garg
- Department of Chemistry, Pomona College, Claremont, California 91711, Departments of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Birla Institute of Technology and Science, Pilani 333031, India, Pharmacia & Upjohn, 301 Henrietta Street, Kalamazoo, Michigan 49007, and Biochemical Virology Laboratory, Lindsley F. Kimball Research Institute of The New York Blood Center, 310 E. 67th Street, New York, New York 10021
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18
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Jin Z, Jin L, Peterson DL, Lawson CL. Model for lentivirus capsid core assembly based on crystal dimers of EIAV p26. J Mol Biol 1999; 286:83-93. [PMID: 9931251 DOI: 10.1006/jmbi.1998.2443] [Citation(s) in RCA: 100] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Two crystal forms of recombinant p26 capsid protein (CA) from the equine infectious anemia virus (EIAV) have in common an antiparallel four-helix bundle dimer interface between N-terminal domains (NTDs). The dimer interface provides a lenient scaffold to accommodate the wide sequence variation in these helices within lentivirus CA. Pairs of dimers weakly associate to form exact or approximate D2 symmetry tetramers. In one of the two crystal forms, the tetramers are linked via dimerization of C-terminal domains (CTDs). We propose that the observed NTD and CTD homodimer interactions are involved in the assembly of the lentivirus capsid. The NTD homodimer shape readily suggests a model for the mature capsid core, based on hexagonal packing with dimensions and surface topology resembling described EIAV capsid cores. Combining available data for human immunodeficiency virus and EIAV CA, we also propose an assembly pathway for maturation of the lentivirus capsid core following proteolytic cleavage of the gag polyprotein precursor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z Jin
- Biology Department, Brookhaven National Laboratory, Upton, NY, 11973, USA
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Abstract
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) genome encodes a total of three structural proteins, two envelope proteins, three enzymes, and six accessory proteins. Studies over the past ten years have provided high-resolution three-dimensional structural information for all of the viral enzymes, structural proteins and envelope proteins, as well as for three of the accessory proteins. In some cases it has been possible to solve the structures of the intact, native proteins, but in most cases structural data were obtained for isolated protein domains, peptidic fragments, or mutants. Peptide complexes with two regulatory RNA fragments and a protein complex with an RNA recognition/encapsidation element have also been structurally characterized. This article summarizes the high-resolution structural information that is currently available for HIV proteins and reviews current structure-function and structure-biological relationships.
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Affiliation(s)
- B G Turner
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Chemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, 1000 Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD, 21250, USA
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20
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Phelps WC, Barnes JA, Lobe DC. Molecular targets for human papillomaviruses: prospects for antiviral therapy. Antivir Chem Chemother 1998; 9:359-77. [PMID: 9875390 DOI: 10.1177/095632029800900501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
A substantial medical need exists for the development of antiviral medicines for the treatment of diseases associated with infection by human papillomaviruses (HPVs). HPVs are associated with various benign and malignant lesions including benign genital condyloma, common skin warts, laryngeal papillomas and anogenital cancer. Since treatment options are limited and typically not very satisfactory, the development of safe and effective antiviral drugs for HPV could have substantial clinical impact. In the last few years, exciting advances have been made in our understanding of papillomavirus replication and the effects that the virus has on growth of the host cell. Although still somewhat rudimentary, techniques have been developed for limited virion production in vitro offering the promise of more rapid advances in the dissection and understanding of the virus life cycle. Of the 8-10 HPV gene products that are made during infection, only one encodes enzymatic activities, the E1 helicase. Successful antiviral therapies have traditionally targeted viral enzymes such as polymerases, kinases and proteases. In contrast, macromolecular interactions which mediate the functions of E6, E7 and E2 are thought to be more difficult targets for small molecule therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- W C Phelps
- Department of Virology, Glaxo Wellcome Inc, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 27709-3398, USA.
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21
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Ball HL, Chan AW, Gibbons WA, Coates AR, Mascagni P. The structural and aggregation properties of the synthetic C-terminal half (104-mer) polypeptide from HIV p24gag resemble those of full-length protein. J Pept Sci 1997; 3:168-80. [PMID: 9230482 DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1387(199705)3:3%3c168::aid-psc95%3e3.0.co;2-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
The aggregation and structural properties of the synthetic C-terminal half [Ala330, Ala350(270-373; 104-mer)] polypeptide from HIV-1 p24gag were studied. In concentrated solutions the synthetic polypeptide aggregated to tetramers which, upon dilution, gave a mixture of monomeric and dimeric and dimeric species. These results correlated well with the in vitro aggregation properties of recombinant p24. The tetrameric form of the synthetic polypeptide had a pI which differed by about four units from that of the mixture of monomeric and dimeric species. CD studies indicated that the latter contained, in aqueous solutions, a compact molecule lacking, however, a defined tertiary structure. Addition of MeOH to aqueous solutions of both tetramer and monomer/dimer mixture induced a more defined structure, which was assigned to that of an alpha + beta protein in agreement with secondary structure predictions. A model of the dimeric form of the 104-mer, which takes into account the results presented here and those from a study on the specificity of a set of anti-104-mer MoAbs, is presented. Finally, the results indicated that the structure of the 104-mer in its dimeric form is similar to that adopted by the same sequence when part of full-length p24.
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Affiliation(s)
- H L Ball
- Italfarmaco Research Centre, Cinisello Balsamo, Milan, Italy
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22
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Ball HL, Chan AWE, Gibbons WA, Coates ARM, Mascagni P. The structural and aggregation properties of the synthetic C-terminal half (104-mer) polypeptide from HIV p24gag resemble those of full-length protein. J Pept Sci 1997. [DOI: 10.1002/(sici)1099-1387(199705)3:3<168::aid-psc95>3.0.co;2-p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
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23
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Momany C, Kovari LC, Prongay AJ, Keller W, Gitti RK, Lee BM, Gorbalenya AE, Tong L, McClure J, Ehrlich LS, Summers MF, Carter C, Rossmann MG. Crystal structure of dimeric HIV-1 capsid protein. NATURE STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY 1996; 3:763-70. [PMID: 8784350 DOI: 10.1038/nsb0996-763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
X-ray diffraction analysis of a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) capsid (CA) protein shows that each monomer within the dimer consists of seven alpha-helices, five of which are arranged in a coiled coil-like structure. Sequence assignments were made for two of the helices, and tentative connectivity of the remainder of the protein was confirmed by the recent solution structure of a monomeric N-terminal fragment. The C-terminal third of the protein is mostly disordered in the crystal. The longest helices in the coiled coil-like structure are separated by a long, highly antigenic peptide that includes the binding site of an antibody fragment complexed with CA in the crystal. The site of binding of the Fab, the position of the antigenic loop and the site of cleavage between the matrix protein and CA establish the side of the dimer that would be on the exterior of the retroviral core.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Momany
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
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24
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Gitti RK, Lee BM, Walker J, Summers MF, Yoo S, Sundquist WI. Structure of the amino-terminal core domain of the HIV-1 capsid protein. Science 1996; 273:231-5. [PMID: 8662505 DOI: 10.1126/science.273.5272.231] [Citation(s) in RCA: 374] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
The three-dimensional structure of the amino-terminal core domain (residues 1 through 151) of the human immunodeficiency virus-type 1 (HIV-1) capsid protein has been solved by multidimensional heteronuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The structure is unlike those of previously characterized viral coat proteins and is composed of seven alpha helices, two beta hairpins, and an exposed partially ordered loop. The domain is shaped like an arrowhead, with the beta hairpins and loop exposed at the trailing edge and the carboxyl-terminal helix projecting from the tip. The proline residue Pro1 forms a salt bridge with a conserved, buried aspartate residue (Asp51), which suggests that the amino terminus of the protein rearranges upon proteolytic maturation. The binding site for cyclophilin A, a cellular rotamase that is packaged into the HIV-1 virion, is located on the exposed loop and encompasses the essential proline residue Pro90. In the free monomeric domain, Pro90 adopts kinetically trapped cis and trans conformations, raising the possibility that cyclophilin A catalyzes interconversion of the cis- and trans-Pro90 loop structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- R K Gitti
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland Baltimore County, Baltimore, MD 21228, USA
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25
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De Clercq E, Yamamoto N, Pauwels R, Balzarini J, Witvrouw M, De Vreese K, Debyser Z, Rosenwirth B, Peichl P, Datema R. Highly potent and selective inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus by the bicyclam derivative JM3100. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 1994; 38:668-74. [PMID: 7913308 PMCID: PMC284523 DOI: 10.1128/aac.38.4.668] [Citation(s) in RCA: 243] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Bicyclams, in which the cyclam (1,4,8,11-tetraazacyclotetradecane) moieties are tethered via an aliphatic bridge (i.e., propylene, as in JM2763) are potent and selective inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and type 2 (HIV-2) (E. De Clercq, N. Yamamoto, R. Pauwels, M. Baba, D. Schols, H. Nakashima, J. Balzarini, Z. Debyser, B. A. Murrer, D. Schwartz, D. Thornton, G. Bridger, S. Fricker, G. Henson, M. Abrams, and D. Picker, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 89:5286-5290, 1992). We have now found that the bicyclam JM3100, in which the cyclam moieties are tethered by an aromatic bridge [i.e., phenylenebis(methylene)], inhibits the replication of various HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains in various cell lines at a 50% effective concentration (EC50) of 1 to 10 ng/ml, which is about 100-fold lower than the concentration required for JM2763 to inhibit HIV replication and at least 100,000-fold lower than the cytotoxic concentration (> 500 micrograms/ml). In primary T4 lymphocytes or primary monocytes, JM3100 proved inhibitory to HIV-1(IIIB) and several clinical HIV-1 isolates at an EC50 of less than 1 ng/ml. On the basis of time-of-addition experiments, JM3100 appeared to interact with a viral uncoating event, and this was further corroborated by an uncoating assay in which RNase sensitivity of [5-3H]uridine-labeled virions was monitored. In addition, but possibly mechanistically related, JM3100 blocks formation of infectious particles. JM3100 was also found to interfere directly with virus-induced syncytium formation, albeit at a higher concentration (1 to 2 microgram/ml) than that required for inhibition of viral replication. Following subcutaneous injection of 10 mg of JM3100 per kg of body weight to rabbits, anti-HIV activity was detected in serum corresponding to serum drug levels exceeding for at least 6 h by >100-fold the EC(50) required to inhibit HIV replication in vitro. When combined with either 3'-azido-2',3' -dideoxythymidine or 2',3' -dideoxyinosine, JM3100 achieved a additive inhibition of HIV replication, and when repeatedly subcultivated in the presence of JM3100, the virus remained sensitive to the compound for at least 30 passages (120 days) in cell culture.
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Affiliation(s)
- E De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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26
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Degar S, Prince AM, Pascual D, Lavie G, Levin B, Mazur Y, Lavie D, Ehrlich LS, Carter C, Meruelo D. Inactivation of the human immunodeficiency virus by hypericin: evidence for photochemical alterations of p24 and a block in uncoating. AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses 1992; 8:1929-36. [PMID: 1283309 DOI: 10.1089/aid.1992.8.1929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Following attachment and entry of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) into a host cell, the HIV genomic RNA is reverse transcribed to cDNA. This step may be inhibited by hypericin, a compound that induces alterations of the retroviral capsid. Incubation of HIV with hypericin rendered the virus noninfectious. The replication of HIV was blocked early; HIV cDNA could not be detected in cells challenged with hypericin-treated HIV. Hypericin did not inhibit the binding of recombinant gp120 to CD4+ cells, nor did hypericin inhibit syncytium formation. However, reverse transcriptase activity could not be released from hypericin-treated virions. Western blot analysis revealed altered mobility of the HIV major capsid protein (p24) following hypericin treatment. Hypericin-treated recombinant HIV p24 exhibited similar altered mobility. The inactivation of HIV infectivity and the alterations in p24 mobility required hypericin incubations in the presence of visible light. Collectively, these data suggest that photochemical alterations of the HIV capsid may contribute to the hypericin-mediated inactivation of HIV. Such alterations may inhibit the release of RT activity from treated HIV, and prevent uncoating and subsequent reverse transcription of the HIV genome within a target cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Degar
- Department of Pathology, New York University Medical Center, NY 10016
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27
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Wiltink EH. Future prospects in antiviral therapy. PHARMACEUTISCH WEEKBLAD. SCIENTIFIC EDITION 1992; 14:268-74. [PMID: 1437509 DOI: 10.1007/bf01962549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Two important stumbling blocks to the development of effective and nontoxic antiviral drugs are the intracellular localization of the virus and the fact that a virus uses host cell functions to multiply. Therefore, new antiviral drugs must act on a virus-specific function. Most currently available useful antiviral drugs are the result of compound screening of large numbers of possible agents. Advances in our understanding of the molecular biology and biochemistry of the viral multiplication cycle and new laboratory techniques for determining the molecular sites of action have now made it possible to develop and screen new antiviral drugs in a more purposeful manner. Another possible option in antiviral therapy is combination therapy using drugs that enhance the therapeutic effect or diminish side-effects. The most promising new antiviral drugs are discussed according to the different steps they affect in the viral multiplication process. Combination therapy is also reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- E H Wiltink
- Medical Centre, Department of Pharmacy, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
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28
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Tanaka N, Saitoh A, Nakata A, Shinagawa H. A simple method for overproduction and purification of p24 Gag protein of human immunodeficiency virus type 1. Microbiol Immunol 1992; 36:823-31. [PMID: 1474933 DOI: 10.1111/j.1348-0421.1992.tb02084.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
A simple method for the overproduction in Escherichia coli and purification of major core protein p24 of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) was described. The gag-pol region encoding p24, p15, and protease was fused to 3' end of lacZ gene on plasmid. A LacZ-Gag fusion protein, the major primary product, is designed to be cleaved by the HIV-1 protease coexpressed through frameshifting. In fact, p24 and its immediate precursor, p25, were produced in the cells grown at 25C, but not at 37C. When the gag and pol frames were fused in-frame to express the protease without frameshifting, the main product, a LacZ-Gag-Pol fusion protein, was efficiently processed to give p24 exclusively both at 37C and 25C, suggesting more efficient expression of the protease. Recombinant p24 was purified to near homogeneity by a simple three-step procedure. The amino-terminal sequence of the recombinant p24 was the same as that of p24 deduced from nucleotide sequence, indicating that correct processing occurred in E. coli by the coexpressed protease. The method described here provides a means to obtain a large amount of highly pure p24, which is useful for crystallographic and functional studies, preparation of specific antibody, and diagnostic and prognostic uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Tanaka
- Department of Experimental Chemotherapy, Osaka University, Japan
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29
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Ehrlich LS, Agresta BE, Carter CA. Assembly of recombinant human immunodeficiency virus type 1 capsid protein in vitro. J Virol 1992; 66:4874-83. [PMID: 1629958 PMCID: PMC241323 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.66.8.4874-4883.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 186] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The capsid protein (CA) (p24) of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to greater than 90% homogeneity was used to examine assembly in vitro and to probe the nature of interactions involved in the formation of capsid structures. The protein was detected in dimeric and oligomeric forms as indicated by molecular size measurements by gel filtration column chromatography, sedimentation through sucrose, and nondenaturing gel electrophoresis. Chemical cross-linking of CA molecules was observed with several homobifunctional reagents. Oligomer size was dependent on cross-linker concentration and exhibited a nonrandom pattern in which dimers and tetramers were more abundant than trimers and pentamers. Oligomers as large as dodecamers were detected in native polyacrylamide gels. These were stable in solutions of high ionic strength or in the presence of nonionic detergent, indicating that strong interactions were involved in oligomer stabilization. Limited tryptic digestion converted the putative dodecamers to octamers, suggesting that a region involved in CA protein multimerization was exposed in the structure. This region was mapped to the central portion of the protein. The recombinant CA proteins assembled in vitro into long rodlike structures and were disassembled into small irregular spheres by alterations in ionic strength and pH. The observation that assembly and disassembly of purified HIV type 1 CA protein can be induced in vitro suggests an approach for identifying possible control mechanisms involved in HIV viral core assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- L S Ehrlich
- Department of Microbiology, State University of New York, Stony Brook 11794
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30
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De Clercq E, Yamamoto N, Pauwels R, Baba M, Schols D, Nakashima H, Balzarini J, Debyser Z, Murrer BA, Schwartz D. Potent and selective inhibition of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)-1 and HIV-2 replication by a class of bicyclams interacting with a viral uncoating event. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1992; 89:5286-90. [PMID: 1608936 PMCID: PMC49276 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.89.12.5286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 201] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
A series of bicyclams have been shown to be potent and selective inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). The compounds are inhibitory to the replication of various HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains in various human T-cell systems, including peripheral blood lymphocytes, at 0.14-1.4 microM, without being toxic to the host cells at 2.2 mM. The bicyclam JM2763 is active against 3'-azido-3'-deoxythymidine (zidovudine; AZT)-resistant HIV-1 strains and acts additively with AZT. Mechanism of action studies revealed that the bicyclams (i.e., JM2763) interact with an early event of the retrovirus replicative cycle, which could be tentatively identified as a viral uncoating event.
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Affiliation(s)
- E De Clercq
- Rega Institute for Medical Research, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Belgium
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31
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Royer M, Hong SS, Gay B, Cerutti M, Boulanger P. Expression and extracellular release of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag precursors by recombinant baculovirus-infected cells. J Virol 1992; 66:3230-5. [PMID: 1560545 PMCID: PMC241093 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.66.5.3230-3235.1992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The level of synthesis and extracellular release of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 Gag by insect cells was analyzed, using eight different recombinants of Autographa californica nuclear polyhedrosis virus harboring various constructs of the gag gene, cloned under the polyhedrin promoter. The results obtained suggested that gag expression was mainly regulated at the transcriptional level and was not significantly influenced by posttranslational events, e.g., Gag self-assembly, nuclear transport, or extracellular release. Two different forms of Gag were found in the culture medium of recombinant-infected cells. One form consisted of membrane-enveloped, corelike particles released by budding at the plasma membrane; the other of nonparticulate, soluble Gag polyprotein molecules. Both forms coexisted in recombinants expressing Gag with an intact N-terminal myristylation signal, whereas recombinants expressing nonmyristylated Gag released solely the soluble form. This suggested that myristylation of the N terminus was not a prerequisite for efficient extracellular release of Gag by insect cells, which could proceed via two independent but simultaneous mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Royer
- Laboratoire de Virologie et Pathogénèse Moléculaires, Institut de Biologie, Faculté de Médecine, Montpellier, France
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32
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Abstract
Drugs capable of inhibiting viruses in vitro were described in the 1950s, but real progress was not made until the 1970s, when agents capable of inhibiting virus-specific enzymes were first identified. The last decade has seen rapid progress in both our understanding of antiviral therapy and the number of antiviral agents on the market. Amantadine and ribavirin are available for treatment of viral respiratory infections. Vidarabine, acyclovir, ganciclovir, and foscarnet are used for systemic treatment of herpesvirus infections, while ophthalmic preparations of idoxuridine, trifluorothymidine, and vidarabine are available for herpes keratitis. For treatment of human immunodeficiency virus infections, zidovudine and didanosine are used. Immunomodulators, such as interferons and colony-stimulating factors, and immunoglobulins are being used increasingly for viral illnesses. While resistance to antiviral drugs has been seen, especially among AIDS patients, it has not become widespread and is being intensely studied. Increasingly, combinations of agents are being used: to achieve synergistic inhibition of viruses, to delay or prevent resistance, and to decrease dosages of toxic drugs. New approaches, such as liposomes carrying antiviral drugs and computer-aided drug design, are exciting and promising prospects for the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Bean
- Department of Pathology, Humana Hospital-Michael Reese, Chicago, Illinois 60616
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33
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Rosé S, Hensley P, O'Shannessy DJ, Culp J, Debouck C, Chaiken I. Characterization of HIV-1 p24 self-association using analytical affinity chromatography. Proteins 1992; 13:112-9. [PMID: 1620693 DOI: 10.1002/prot.340130204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Analytical affinity chromatography (AAC) was used to detect and quantitate the self-association of p24gag, the major structural capsid protein of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1). p24gag was immobilized on a hydrophilic polymer (methacrylate) chromatographic support. The resulting affinity column was able to interact with soluble p24, as judged by the chromatographic retardation of the soluble protein upon isocratic elution under nonchaotropic binding conditions. The variation of elution volume with soluble protein concentration fit to a monomer-dimer model for self-association. The soluble p24-immobilized p24 association process was observed using both frontal and zonal elution AAC at varying pH values; the dissociation constant was 3-4 x 10(-5) M at pH 7. That p24 monomer associates to dimers was determined in solution using analytical ultracentrifugation. The solution Kd was 1.3 x 10(-5) M at pH 7. AAC in the zonal elution mode provides a simple and rapid means to screen for other HIV-1 macromolecules that may interact with p24 as well as for modulators, including antagonists, of HIV p24 protein assembly.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Rosé
- Department of Macromolecular Sciences, Biopharmaceuticals R&D, SmithKline Beecham, King of Prussia, Pennsylvania 19406-0939
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34
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McKenna R, Xia D, Willingmann P, Ilag LL, Krishnaswamy S, Rossmann MG, Olson NH, Baker TS, Incardona NL. Atomic structure of single-stranded DNA bacteriophage phi X174 and its functional implications. Nature 1992; 355:137-43. [PMID: 1370343 PMCID: PMC4167681 DOI: 10.1038/355137a0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 167] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The mechanism of DNA ejection, viral assembly and evolution are related to the structure of bacteriophage phi X174. The F protein forms a T = 1 capsid whose major folding motif is the eight-stranded antiparallel beta barrel found in many other icosahedral viruses. Groups of 5 G proteins form 12 dominating spikes that enclose a hydrophilic channel containing some diffuse electron density. Each G protein is a tight beta barrel with its strands running radially outwards and with a topology similar to that of the F protein. The 12 'pilot' H proteins per virion may be partially located in the putative ion channel. The small, basic J protein is associated with the DNA and is situated in an interior cleft of the F protein. Tentatively, there are three regions of partially ordered DNA structure,
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Affiliation(s)
- R McKenna
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
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35
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Hellen CU, Wimmer E. The role of proteolytic processing in the morphogenesis of virus particles. EXPERIENTIA 1992; 48:201-15. [PMID: 1740191 PMCID: PMC7087542 DOI: 10.1007/bf01923512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Proteinases are encoded by many RNA viruses, all retroviruses and several DNA viruses. They play essential roles at various stages in viral replication, including the coordinated assembly and maturation of virions. Most of these enzymes belong to one of three (Ser, Cys or Asp) of the four major classes of proteinases, and have highly substrate-selective and cleavage specific activities. They can be thought of as playing one of two general roles in viral morphogenesis. Structural proteins are encoded by retroviruses and many RNA viruses as part of large polyproteins. Their proteolytic release is a prerequisite to particle assembly; consequent structural rearrangement of the capsid domains serves to regulate and direct association and assembly of capsid subunits. The second general role of proteolysis is in assembly-dependent maturation of virus particles, which is accompanied by the acquisition of infectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- C U Hellen
- Department of Microbiology, State University of New York, Stony Brook 11794-8631
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36
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�a?in T, Holder M, Pettitt BM. A method for modeling icosahedral virions: Rotational symmetry boundary conditions. J Comput Chem 1991. [DOI: 10.1002/jcc.540120513] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
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37
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Affiliation(s)
- E Arnold
- Center for Advanced Biotechnology and Medicine, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
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38
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Prongay AJ, Smith TJ, Rossmann MG, Ehrlich LS, Carter CA, McClure J. Preparation and crystallization of a human immunodeficiency virus p24-Fab complex. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1990; 87:9980-4. [PMID: 2124709 PMCID: PMC55298 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.87.24.9980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
A recombinant form of human immunodeficiency virus capsid protein, p24, expressed in Escherichia coli has been purified to homogeneity and separated into distinct isoelectric forms. A monoclonal antibody, mAb25.4, which recognizes an epitope in the amino-terminal region of p24, has been purified to homogeneity from ascites fluid and digested with papain to produce the respective antigen-binding fragment (Fab). The Fab25.4 was purified from the digestion mixture and separated into two distinct isoelectric forms. The two Fab species were each complexed with one isoelectric form of the recombinant p24 by incubating equimolar quantities of the two proteins. Two different crystal morphologies of the p24-Fab25.4 complex were obtained by the vapor-diffusion method with 12-24% PEG 3350 as the precipitant. One of these crystal forms has unit-cell parameters of a = 92.1 A, b = 85.4 A, c = 54.0 A, alpha = gamma = 90.0 degrees and beta = 90.4 degrees and belongs to the monoclinic space group P2(1), with one molecule of the complex per asymmetric unit. These crystals strongly diffracted x-rays to at least 2.7-A resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- A J Prongay
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN 47907
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Heinz BA, Rueckert RR, Shepard DA, Dutko FJ, McKinlay MA, Fancher M, Rossmann MG, Badger J, Smith TJ. Genetic and molecular analyses of spontaneous mutants of human rhinovirus 14 that are resistant to an antiviral compound. J Virol 1989; 63:2476-85. [PMID: 2542566 PMCID: PMC250706 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.63.6.2476-2485.1989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Spontaneous mutants of human rhinovirus 14 resistant to WIN 52084, an antiviral compound that inhibits attachment to cells, were isolated by selecting plaques that developed when wild-type virus was plated in the presence of high (2 micrograms/ml) or low (0.1 to 0.4 micrograms/ml) concentrations of the compound. Two classes of drug resistance were observed: a high-resistance (HR) class with a frequency of about 4 x 10(-5), and a low-resistance (LR) class with a 10- to 30-fold-higher frequency. The RNA genomes of 56 HR mutants and 13 LR mutants were sequenced in regions encoding the drug-binding site. The HR mutations mapped to only 2 of the 16 amino acid residues that form the walls of the drug-binding pocket. The side chains of these two residues point directly into the pocket and were invariably replaced by bulkier groups. These findings, and patterns of resistance to related WIN compounds, support the concept that HR mutations may hinder the entry or seating of drug within the binding pocket. In contrast, all of the LR mutations mapped to portions of the polypeptide chain near the canyon floor that move when the drug is inserted. Because several LR mutations partially reverse the attachment-inhibiting effect of WIN compounds, these mutants provide useful tools for studying the regions of the capsid structure involved in attachment. This paper shows that the method of escape mutant analysis, previously used to identify antibody binding sites on human rhinovirus 14, is also applicable to analysis of antiviral drug activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- B A Heinz
- Institute for Molecular Virology, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53706
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Badger J, Minor I, Oliveira MA, Smith TJ, Rossmann MG. Structural analysis of antiviral agents that interact with the capsid of human rhinoviruses. Proteins 1989; 6:1-19. [PMID: 2558377 DOI: 10.1002/prot.340060102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
X-Ray diffraction data have been obtained for nine related antiviral agents ("WIN compounds") while bound to human rhinovirus 14 (HRV14). These compounds can inhibit both viral attachment to host cells and uncoating. To calculate interpretable electron density maps it was necessary to account for (1) the low (approximately 60%) occupancies of these compounds in the crystal, (2) the large (up to 7.9 A) conformational changes induced at the attachment site, and (3) the incomplete diffraction data. Application of a density difference map technique, which exploits the 20-fold noncrystallographic redundancy in HRV14, resulted in clear images of the HRV14:WIN complexes. A real-space refinement procedure was used to fit atomic models to these maps. The binding site of WIN compounds in HRV14 is a hydrophobic pocket composed mainly from residues that form the beta-barrel of VP1. Among rhinoviruses, the residues associated with the binding pocket are far more conserved than external residues and are mostly contained within regular secondary structural elements. Molecular dynamics simulations of three HRV14:WIN complexes suggest that portions of the WIN compounds and viral protein near the entrance of the binding pocket are more flexible than portions deeper within the beta-barrel.
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Affiliation(s)
- J Badger
- Department of Biological Sciences, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana 47907
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