Amygdala activity at encoding correlated with long-term, free recall of emotional information

Huddling promotes adult neurogenesis in the brain regions related to social behavior in cold-exposed Brandt's voles

Social thermoregulation behaviors such as huddling among individuals can be important for energy conservation and thermoregulatory processes. Beyond that, whether huddling behavior regulates neural plasticity in the brain remains unknown. We hypothesized that huddling regulates adult neurogenesis in brain regions related to social behavior and thermoregulation. We found that cold-exposed voles had decreased aggression and increased social interaction in association with higher oxytocin but lower vasopressin hormones compared to warm-exposed voles. Cold decreased the level of cell proliferation labeling indicated by BrdU (a marker for cell proliferation) in the anterior part of the subventricular zone (SVZ) in the brain, and notably, cold-huddling (CH) voles had a higher number of proliferating cells in the hypothalamus than cold-separated (CS) voles. Moreover, CH voles displayed higher cell survival in the central amygdala and paraventricular nuclei (PVN) of the hypothalamus (both regions were related to social behavior) in comparison to CS or warm-huddling (WH) voles, respectively. Furthermore, the CH voles had more BrdU/NeuN (markers for new neurons) double-labeled cells in the SVZ than WH voles, and also more BrdU/GFAP (markers for new glial cells) double-labeled cells in SVZ and dentate gyrus compared to WH and CS voles. In addition, the newly-generated neurons differentiated into more oxytocinergic neurons in the PVN of the CH voles. Together, these data support the notion that huddling behavior is beneficial for brain plasticity by protecting cell proliferation, survival, and differentiation, and may be involved in regulating social behavior in small mammals in cold environments.

Emotion Processing in Late Adulthood: The Effect of Emotional Valence and Face Age on Behavior and Scanning Patterns

Age-related differences in emotion recognition are well-documented in older adults aged 65 and above, with stimulus valence and the age of the model being key influencing factors. This study examined these variables across three experiments using a novel set of images depicting younger and older models expressing positive and negative emotions (e.g., happy vs. sad; interested vs. bored). Experiment 1 focused on valence-arousal dimensions, Experiment 2 on emotion recognition accuracy, and Experiment 3 on visual fixation patterns. Age-related differences were found in emotion recognition. No significant age-related differences in gaze behavior were found; both age groups looked more at the eye region. The positivity effect-older adults' tendency to prioritize positive over negative information-did not consistently manifest in recognition performance or scanning patterns. However, older adults evaluated positive emotions differently than negative emotions, rating negative facial expressions as less negative and positive emotions as more arousing compared to younger adults. Finally, emotions portrayed by younger models were rated as more intense and more positive than those portrayed by older adults by both older and younger adults. We conclude that the positivity effect and own-age bias may be more complex and nuanced than previously thought.

Unpleasant emotions and task-unrelated thoughts and their associations with amygdala activity during emotional distraction: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study

Previous emotion regulation studies revealed that emotional distraction decreases unpleasant emotions. This study examined whether distraction tasks decrease unpleasant task-unrelated thoughts (TUTs) and unpleasant emotions when recalling stressful daily interpersonal events. Amygdala activity was examined to assess implicit emotional changes using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI). The behavioral data of 20 university students (mean age: 20.35 ± 1.42 years; range: 18-24 years) and fMRI data of 18 students were examined. As an emotion induction procedure, participants initially freely recalled memories of daily stressful interpersonal events and then responded to a series of questions about their recalled memories presented on a monitor. In the distraction experiment, the questions were re-represented as an emotional stimulation; a distraction task (nonconstant or constant finger tapping) or rest condition was then performed, and ratings were given for attentional state, thought types conceived during the tasks, and emotional state. Decreases in unpleasant emotions and TUTs were defined as distraction effects. We found that unpleasant TUTs decreased in the nonconstant relative to rest condition (p < .05). Furthermore, increased right amygdala activation positively correlated with unpleasant emotions, and bilateral amygdala activation correlated with unpleasant TUTs only in the rest condition, indicating the existence of amygdala activation associated with unpleasant emotions and thoughts. However, such associations were not under nonconstant or constant conditions, indicating distraction effects. Notably, this study showed that emotional distraction can decrease the degree of unpleasant emotions and the occurrence of unpleasant thoughts regarding common daily emotions.

The days we never forget: Flashbulb memories across the life span in Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is characterized by autobiographical memory deficits, with the ability to retrieve episodic-rich memories being particularly affected. Here, we investigated the influence of AD on a specific subtype of episodic memories known as flashbulb memories (i.e., the ability to remember the personal circumstances for the reception of important news events). We examined the frequency, characteristics, and the temporal distribution of flashbulb memories across the life span. To this aim, 28 older adults diagnosed with AD and a matched sample of 29 healthy older controls were probed for flashbulb memories for two historical events from each decade of their lives. They also estimated the subjective degree of reexperiencing for the memories reported. AD participants showed impaired access to flashbulb memories, the frequency of reported memories being lower than for healthy older adults. However, qualitative aspects of AD participants' flashbulb memories were quite similar to those of the controls, as no group differences were obtained with respect to the canonical categories or degree of reexperience. AD participants' flashbulb memories clustered during the early years of their life, consistent with a reminiscence bump, whereas healthy controls also reported memories dated to later lifetime periods. Our results suggest that probing for personal memories of important public events may serve as a powerful cue for detailed episodic memories in AD.

Self-reference and emotional reaction drive aesthetic judgment

Traditional philosophical inquiry, and more recently neuroscientific studies, have investigated the sources of artworks' aesthetic appeal. A substantial effort has been made to isolate the objective features contributing to aesthetic appreciation. While variables such as contrast or symmetry have been shown to robustly impact aesthetic judgment, they only account for a small portion of the intersubjective variability in aesthetic ratings. Recent multiprocess model of aesthetic appreciation could accommodate this finding by proposing that evaluative processes based on self-reference underpin the idiosyncrasy of aesthetic judgment. We tested this hypothesis in two behavioral studies, that were basically conceptual replications of our previous work, in which we took advantage of the self-reference effect on memory. We also tried to disentangle the role of self-reference and emotional reaction to artworks in guiding aesthetic judgments, by comparing an aesthetic judgment encoding condition to a self-reference condition (Study 1), and an emotional evaluation condition (Study 2). We show that artworks encoded in an aesthetic judgment condition exhibit a similar mnesic advantage compared to both the self-reference and the emotional evaluation encoding conditions. Moreover, retrospective emotional judgment correlates with both self-reference and aesthetic judgments ratings. These results suggest that a basic mechanism, appraisal of self-relevance, could ground aesthetic judgments.

A Qualitative Analysis of Perspectives on Self-directed Violence in a Prospective Longitudinal Study of Young Women With and Without Childhood ADHD

OBJECTIVE

Non-suicidal self-directed violence (NSSDV) is a significant and growing youth public health crisis. Girls with ADHD are at increased risk of engaging in NSSDV, yet qualitative studies with this population-to better understand manifestations, motivations, and developmental course-are lacking.

METHOD

We conducted semi-structured, qualitative interviews with a sub-sample of 57 young women (32 with childhood ADHD, 25 neurotypical comparisons; mean age of 27 years, part of a larger prospective longitudinal study) regarding histories and manifestations of NSSDV.

RESULTS

Inductive and deductive analysis revealed several key themes, including self-perceived reasons for engaging in NSSDV (affect regulation, attention seeking, self-punishment, asserting control), impulsivity, secretiveness, and in some cases motivations for desistance.

CONCLUSION

Findings underscore the importance of early education and screening, especially among high-risk clinical populations. Increased resources and supports for professionals, parents, and peers are indicated, along with countering the persistent stigma associated with ADHD and NSSDV.

A case for using methods from natural science in advancing the field of cognitive neuroscience

Cognitive neuroscience seeks to pinpoint the neural basis of cognitive function. Application of scientific methods can be credited for its advancement within the field of psychology. Past approaches such as phrenology, that linked bumps on the skull to mental capabilities, initially gained popularity, but the lack of experimental testing contributed to its demise. Research in neuropsychology and the use of the double dissociation experimental technique subsequently emerged. Objective measurements of behaviour following selective damage within the brain led to a paradigm shift. More recently, application of the subtraction technique, coupled with the emergence of cognitive neuroimaging tools, has allowed psychologists to isolate and measure specific functions such as language, vision, memory, and recognition of emotion. Importantly, these approaches enable reliable prediction of behaviours, given parameters of brain integrity, a key goal within the field of psychology.

Altered brain responses to emotional auditory stimuli in AVH subjects: an fMRI study

Purpose: Auditory verbal hallucinations (AVH) are a frequently occurring phenomenon in which subjects hear verbal sounds in the absence of any external stimuli. The prevalence of auditory hallucinations in schizophrenia has been revealed in many studies. Healthy subjects may also experience auditory hallucinations without accompanying psychological or neurological disorders, and in rare cases they seek clinical assistance for this emotionally disturbing condition. The aim of this study was to investigate the neural basis of emotional disturbance in auditory hallucinating subjects who do not suffer from any psychological or neurological disorder. Materials and Methods: Fourteen subjects suffering from auditory hallucinations and 15 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were recruited in this study. All participants underwent fMRI in two experimental sessions. In the first experimental session, all participants from both groups listened to pleasant auditory stimuli. In the second session, both groups listened to unpleasant auditory stimuli. The auditory stimuli were obtained from the International Affective Digitized Sounds (IADS). Results: Compared with the healthy control group, AVH subjects exhibited significantly increased activation in limbic, auditory, and frontal regions. Conclusion: Current results suggest that AVH may induce functional reorganization in emotion-related brain regions.

An extended emotion-eliciting film clips set (EGEFILM): assessment of emotion ratings for 104 film clips in a Turkish sample

The primary aim of this study was to test emotion-elicitation levels of widely used film clips in a Turkish sample and to expand existing databases by adding several new film clips with the capacity to elicit a wide range of emotions, including a rarely studied emotion category, i.e., calmness. For this purpose, we conducted a comprehensive review of prior studies and collected a large number of new suggestions from a Turkish sample to select film clips for eight emotion categories: amusement, tenderness, calmness, anger, sadness, disgust, fear, and neutrality. Furthermore, we aimed to assess emotion-eliciting levels of short video clips, mostly taken by amateur video footage. In total, 104 film clips were tested online by rating several affective dimensions. Self-reported emotional experience was assessed in terms of intensity, discreteness, valence, and arousal. It was found that at least one of the existing film clips, most of the new film clips, and the short video clips were successful at eliciting medium to high levels of target emotions. However, we also observed overlaps between certain emotions (e.g., tenderness-sadness, anger-sadness-disgust, or fear-anxiety). The current results are mostly in line with previous databases, suggesting that film clips are efficient at eliciting a wide range of emotions where cultural background might play a role in the elicitation of certain emotions (e.g., amusement, anger, etc.). We hope that this extended emotion-eliciting film clips set (EGEFILM) will provide a rich resource for future emotion research both in Turkey and the international area.

Does misremembering drive false alarms for emotional lures? A diffusion model investigation

Previous evidence has shown that, in a recognition memory task, emotion leads participants to make more false alarms and decreases response times (RTs) for false alarm responses. This pattern could arise because participants adopt more liberal responding for emotional stimuli and/or because emotional lures are more likely than neutral lures to produce misleading memory retrieval. Recently, Starns et al. designed a new recognition memory paradigm and found that the speed of memory errors shows the influence of misleading information resulting in unavoidable memory errors. This study investigates the basis of false alarms to emotional lures by testing predictions of the diffusion model for a recognition paradigm similar to that by Starns et al. Participants studied lists of emotional words and then completed an old-new recognition memory test. After each old-new decision, participants were asked to make a forced-choice recognition decision that provided a chance to correct possible errors on the preceding old-new decision. Under the assumption that emotion promotes misremembering, the diffusion model predicts that forced-choice accuracy should be lower for pairs with emotional versus neutral lures and that faster old-new errors should be associated with lower forced-choice accuracy. This study tested these predictions, providing theoretical insights into how emotion affects memory retrieval and further developing a new methodology for measuring recognition performance.

Peripherally-administered amphetamine induces plasticity in medial prefrontal cortex and nucleus accumbens in rats with amygdala lesions: implications for neural models of memory modulation

The amygdala has been implicated in a variety of functions linked to emotions. One popular view is that the amygdala modulates consolidation in other brain systems thought to be mainly involved in learning and memory processes. This series of experiments represents a further exploration into the role of the amygdala in memory modulation and consolidation. One interesting line of research has shown that drugs of abuse, like amphetamine, produce dendritic changes in select brain regions and these changes are thought to be equivalent to a usurping of normal plasticity processes. We were interested in the possibility that this modulation of plasticity processes would be dependent on interactions with the amygdala. According to the modulation view of amygdala function, amphetamine would activate modulation mechanisms in the amygdala that would alter plasticity processes in other brain regions. If the amygdala was rendered dysfunctional, these effects should not occur. Accordingly, this series of experiments evaluated the effects of extensive neurotoxic amygdala damage on amphetamine-induced dendritic changes in the nucleus accumbens and prefrontal cortex. The results showed that rats with large lesions of the amygdala showed the normal pattern of dendritic changes in these brain regions. This pattern of results suggests that the action of not all memory modulators, activated during emotional events, require the amygdala to impact memory.

The amygdala mediates the facilitating influence of emotions on memory through multiple interacting mechanisms

Emotionally arousing experiences are better remembered than neutral ones, highlighting that memory consolidation differentially promotes retention of experiences depending on their survival value. This paper reviews evidence indicating that the basolateral amygdala (BLA) mediates the facilitating influence of emotions on memory through multiple mechanisms. Emotionally arousing events, in part by triggering the release of stress hormones, cause a long-lasting enhancement in the firing rate and synchrony of BLA neurons. BLA oscillations, particularly gamma, play an important role in synchronizing the activity of BLA neurons. In addition, BLA synapses are endowed with a unique property, an elevated post-synaptic expression of NMDA receptors. As a result, the synchronized gamma-related recruitment of BLA neurons facilitates synaptic plasticity at other inputs converging on the same target neurons. Given that emotional experiences are spontaneously remembered during wake and sleep, and that REM sleep is favorable to the consolidation of emotional memories, we propose a synthesis for the various lines of evidence mentioned above: gamma-related synchronized firing of BLA cells potentiates synapses between cortical neurons that were recruited during an emotional experience, either by tagging these cells for subsequent reactivation or by enhancing the effects of reactivation itself.

Synergistic effects of disgust and anger on amygdala activation while recalling memories of interpersonal stress: An fMRI study

Occurrence of an unpleasant interpersonal event in daily life may cause an individual to experience unpleasant emotions and recall memories regarding it. These emotions, manifesting in daily social interactions, are often complex and mixed. In the laboratory, autobiographical recall is frequently used to induce emotions; however, it often involves recalling memories associated with a specific discrete emotion (e.g., sadness). To examine the neural activity of emotions similar to real-life experiences, we examined neural activity while recalling memories of stressful interpersonal events in daily life, without specifying a discrete emotion. Of the 23 university students recruited, 21 were analyzed and asked to freely recall memories and answer a series of questions on a monitor concerning their recalled memories while their neural activity was measured with functional magnetic resonance imaging. Amygdala activity increased while receiving the instructions, followed by a decrease in activity. This indicates that the participants' arousal and vigilance initially increased in response to a novel stimulus, and then decreased by habituation. Disgust and anger, which frequently occur as negative interpersonal feelings, were most prominently produced with strong associations with each other. More importantly, activation of the right amygdala while responding to questions regarding the recalled memories was positively correlated with disgust or anger only when not controlling for anger or disgust, respectively. These results indicate that responding to questions facilitated the generation of a mixed emotional response compared to during free recall alone. Furthermore, disgust and anger as a mixed emotion can synergistically activate amygdala.

Comparative Functional Connectivity of Core Brain Regions between Implicit and Explicit Memory Tasks Underlying Negative Emotion in General Anxiety Disorder

Objective

To investigate not only differential patterns of functional connectivity of core brain regions between implicit and explicit verbal memory tasks underlying negatively evoked emotional condition, but also correlations of functional connectivity (FC) strength with clinical symptom severity in patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD).

Methods

Thirteen patients with GAD and 13 healthy controls underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging for memory tasks with negative emotion words.

Results

Clinical symptom and its severities of GAD were potentially associated with abnormalities of task-based FC with core brain regions and distinct FC patterns between implicit vs. explicit memory processing in GAD were potentially well discriminated. Outstanding FC in implicit memory task includes positive connections of precentral gyus (PrG) to inferior frontal gyrus and inferior parietal gyrus (IPG), respectively, in encoding period; a positive connection of amygdala (Amg) to globus pallidus as well as a negative connection of Amg to cerebellum in retrieval period. Meanwhile, distinct FC in explicit memory included a positive connection of PrG to inferior temporal gyrus (ITG) in encoding period; a positive connection of the anterior cingulate gyrus to superior frontal gyrus in retrieval period. Especially, there were positive correlation between GAD-7 scores and FC of PrG-IPG (r² = 0.324, p = 0.042) in implicit memory encoding, and FC of PrG-ITG (r² = 0.378, p = 0.025) in explicit memory encoding.

Conclusion

This study clarified differential patterns of brain activation and relevant FC between implicit and explicit verbal memory tasks underlying negative emotional feelings in GAD. These findings will be helpful for an understanding of distinct brain functional mechanisms associated with clinical symptom severities in GAD.

The Physiologic and Emotional Effects of 360-Degree Video Simulation on Head-Mounted Display Versus In-Person Simulation: A Noninferiority, Randomized Controlled Trial

INTRODUCTION

A key simulation component is its capability to elicit physiological changes, improving recall. The primary aim was to determine whether parasympathetic responses to head-mounted display simulations (HMDs) were noninferior to in-person simulations. The secondary aims explored sympathetic and affective responses and learning effectiveness.

METHODS

The authors conducted a noninferiority trial. Hospital providers who did not use chronotropic medications, have motion sickness, or have seizures were included. The authors randomized participants to in-person or HMD simulation. Biometric sensors collected respiratory sinus arrhythmia and skin conductance levels to measure parasympathetic and sympathetic states at baseline, during, and after the simulation. Affect was measured using a schedule. The authors measured 3-month recall of learning points and used split-plot analysis of variance and Mann-Whitney U tests to analyze.

RESULTS

One hundred fifteen participants qualified, and the authors analyzed 56 in each group. Both groups experienced a significant change in mean respiratory sinus arrhythmia from baseline to during and from during to afterward. The difference of change between the groups from baseline to during was 0.134 (95% confidence interval = 0.142 to 0.410, P = 0.339). The difference of change from during the simulation to after was -0.060 (95% confidence interval = -0.337 to 0.217, P = 0.670). Noninferiority was not established for either period. Sympathetic arousal did not occur in either group. Noninferiority was not established for the changes in affect that were demonstrated. The mean scores of teaching effectiveness and achievement scores were not different.

CONCLUSIONS

Although a parasympathetic and affective response to the video simulation on an HMD did occur, it was not discernibly noninferior to in-person in this study.

Behavioral Experience-Sampling Methods in Neuroimaging Studies With Movie and Narrative Stimuli

Movies and narratives are increasingly utilized as stimuli in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), magnetoencephalography (MEG), and electroencephalography (EEG) studies. Emotional reactions of subjects, what they pay attention to, what they memorize, and their cognitive interpretations are all examples of inner experiences that can differ between subjects during watching of movies and listening to narratives inside the scanner. Here, we review literature indicating that behavioral measures of inner experiences play an integral role in this new research paradigm via guiding neuroimaging analysis. We review behavioral methods that have been developed to sample inner experiences during watching of movies and listening to narratives. We also review approaches that allow for joint analyses of the behaviorally sampled inner experiences and neuroimaging data. We suggest that building neurophenomenological frameworks holds potential for solving the interrelationships between inner experiences and their neural underpinnings. Finally, we tentatively suggest that recent developments in machine learning approaches may pave way for inferring different classes of inner experiences directly from the neuroimaging data, thus potentially complementing the behavioral self-reports.

Basolateral amygdala stimulation plus water maze training restore dentate gyrus LTP and improve spatial learning and memory

Synaptic plasticity is a key mechanism of neural plasticity involved in learning and memory. A reduced or impaired synaptic plasticity could lead to a deficient learning and memory. On the other hand, besides reducing hipocampal dependent learning and memory, fimbria-fornix lesion affects LTP. However, we have consistently shown that stimulation of the basolateral amygdala (BLA) 15 min after water maze training is able to improve spatial learning and memory in fimbria fornix lesioned rats while also inducing changes in the expression of plasticity-related genes expression in memory associated brain regions like the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex. In this study we test that hypothesis: whether BLA stimulation 15 min after water maze training can improve LTP in the hippocampus of fimbria-fornix lesioned rats. To address this question, we trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats in water maze for four consecutive days, and the BLA was bilaterally stimulated 15 min after each training session.Our data show that trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats develop a partially improved LTP in dentated gyrus compared with the non-trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats. In contrast, dentated gyrus LTP in trained and BLA stimulated fimbria-fornix lesioned rats improved significantly compared to the trained fimbria-fornix lesioned rats, but was not different from that shown by healthy animals. BLA stimulation in non-trained FF lesioned rats did not improve LTP; instead produces a transient synaptic depression. Restoration of the ability to develop LTP by the combination of training and BLA stimulation would be one of the mechanisms involved in ameliorating memory deficits in lesioned animals.

Impairment of aversive episodic memories during Covid-19 pandemic: The impact of emotional context on memory processes

The threatening context of the COVID-19 pandemic provided a unique setting to study the effects of negative psychological symptoms on memory processes. Episodic memory is an essential function of the human being related to the ability to store and remember experiences and anticipate possible events in the future. Studying this function in this context is crucial to understand what effects the pandemic will have on the formation of episodic memories. To study this, the formation of episodic memories was evaluated by free recall, recognition, and episode order tasks for an aversive and neutral content. The results indicated that aversive episodic memory is impaired both in the free recall task and in the recognition task. Even the beneficial effect that emotional memory usually has for the episodic order was undermined as there were no differences between the neutral and aversive condition. The present work adds to the evidence that indicates that the level of activation does not modify memory processes in a linear way, which also depends on the type of recall and the characteristics of the content to be encoded.

Neoliberal precarity and primalization: A biosocial perspective on the age of insecurity, injustice, and unreason

In light of the observed rise in social instability and populist politics that has emerged recently even in some of the world's oldest and presumed stable democracies, this paper reappraises the role of the neoliberal political and economic consensus in fermenting popular discontent. While this is very well trodden ground the paper approaches the issues from a wholly new direction, specifically addressing how exposure to the destabilizing conditions of the present can be seen to have negatively impacted on the neurological functioning of many of the disenchanted and distressed of the current era, generating chronic negative emotional arousal and an associated impact on the capacity for rational thought and conduct. This condition of mental and emotional fugue, it is argued, has also rendered growing numbers more susceptible to marginal and radicalizing discourses, largely extended and amplified via social media, and not least the emotionally charged overtures of populist politicians. Against a backdrop of increasing insecurity, transformative changes to work and living conditions precipitated by neoliberal policy and the digital revolution, together with the epochal crisis presented by the global pandemic, it is argued that the task of understanding the deep and fundamental causes of social and political fracture have rarely been more urgent.

Altered striatum centered brain structures in SHANK3 deficient Chinese children with genotype and phenotype profiling

SHANK3 deficiency represents one of the most replicated monogenic risk factors for autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and SHANK3 caused ASD presents a unique opportunity to understand the underlying neuropathological mechanisms of ASD. In this study, genetic tests, comprehensive clinical and neurobehavioral evaluations, as well as multimodal structural MRI using voxel-based morphometry (VBM) and tract-based spatial statistics (TBSS) were conducted in SHANK3 group (N = 14 with SHANK3 defects), ASD controls (N = 26 with idiopathic ASD without SHANK3 defects) and typically developing (TD) controls (N = 32). Phenotypically, we reported several new features in Chinese SHANK3 deficient children including anteverted nares, sensory stimulation seeking, dental abnormalities and hematological problems. In SHANK3 group, VBM revealed decreased grey matter volumes mainly in dorsal striatum, amygdala, hippocampus and parahippocampal gyrus; TBSS demonstrated decreased fractional anisotropy in multiple tracts involving projection, association and commissural fibers, including middle cerebral peduncle, corpus callosum, superior longitudinal fasciculus, corona radiata, external and internal capsule, and posterior thalamic radiation, etc. We report that the disrupted striatum centered brain structures are associated with SHANK3 deficient children. Study of subjects with monogenic cause offer specific insights into the neuroimaging studies of ASD. The discovery may support a path for future functional connectivity studies to allow for more in-depth understandings of the abnormal neural circuits and the underlying neuropathological mechanisms for ASD.

Movies and narratives as naturalistic stimuli in neuroimaging

Using movies and narratives as naturalistic stimuli in human neuroimaging studies has yielded significant advances in understanding of cognitive and emotional functions. The relevant literature was reviewed, with emphasis on how the use of naturalistic stimuli has helped advance scientific understanding of human memory, attention, language, emotions, and social cognition in ways that would have been difficult otherwise. These advances include discovering a cortical hierarchy of temporal receptive windows, which supports processing of dynamic information that accumulates over several time scales, such as immediate reactions vs. slowly emerging patterns in social interactions. Naturalistic stimuli have also helped elucidate how the hippocampus supports segmentation and memorization of events in day-to-day life and have afforded insights into attentional brain mechanisms underlying our ability to adopt specific perspectives during natural viewing. Further, neuroimaging studies with naturalistic stimuli have revealed the role of the default-mode network in narrative-processing and in social cognition. Finally, by robustly eliciting genuine emotions, these stimuli have helped elucidate the brain basis of both basic and social emotions apparently manifested as highly overlapping yet distinguishable patterns of brain activity.

Enhanced mnemonic discrimination for emotional memories: the role of arousal in interference resolution

In the present study we investigated the long-standing question whether and why emotionally arousing memories are more distinct as compared to neutral experiences. We assumed that memory benefits from the distinctiveness of emotional information, and that emotions affect encoding by reducing interference among overlapping memory representations. Since pattern separation is the process which minimizes interference between memory representations with similar features, we examined the behavioral manifestation of putative neural mechanisms enabling pattern separation (i.e. mnemonic discrimination) for emotionally arousing materials using the Mnemonic Similarity Task with negative, positive, and neutral images as stimuli. Immediately after incidental encoding, subjects were presented with stimuli they had seen at encoding and also with new items. Crucially, participants were also presented with lure images that were visually similar to ones they had seen before. Response options were old, new, and similar. Our results showed that individuals were better in discriminating between similar, emotionally arousing memories, when compared to the neutral stimuli. Moreover, this so-called lure discrimination performance was better for the negative images, than it was for the positive stimuli. Finally, we showed that the high arousing negative stimuli were better separated than the low arousing negative stimuli, and a similar pattern of results was found for the positive items. Altogether, these findings suggest that lure discrimination is modulated by arousal and not by valence. We argue that noradrenergic activity might facilitate interference resolution among memory representations with similar features, and that superior pattern separation might play a key role in memory enhancement for emotional experiences.

Flashbulb memory recall in healthy adults - a functional magnetic resonance imaging study

The present study investigated neural activations related to flashbulb memory (FM) recall and examined whether the amygdala and hippocampus are involved in FM recall. 20 healthy adults completed a block design with an FM-condition, where the reception events for a number of potential FM events had to be recalled, and a control condition (FMC) comprising reception events lacking FM characteristics. A definition naming task was used as an implicit baseline. The individual emotional reaction to the FM events (EMO) and self-rated retrieval success were included in the SPM model as modulating parameters. The main contrast of interest were FM > FMC and activations associated with EMO. ROI-analyses on mesiotemporal regions were performed. FM > FMC yielded activations in line with the autobiographical memory network, with mostly left sided-activations. EMO was associated with a more bilateral activation pattern. ROI-analysis revealed activations for EMO in the right amygdala and HATA. FM > FMC was associated with right hippocampal activations. The present findings are compatible with previous research into autobiographical memory, but also show activations for FM recall different from ordinary, not highly emotional autobiographical memories, as EMO is associated with a more bilateral network. Moreover, the amygdala seems to be involved in FM recall.

Emotionally expressed voices are retained in memory following a single exposure

Studies of voice recognition in biology suggest that long exposure may not satisfactorily represent the voice acquisition process. The current study proposes that humans can acquire a newly familiar voice from brief exposure to spontaneous speech, given a personally engaging context. Studies have shown that arousing and emotionally engaging experiences are more likely to be recorded and consolidated in memory. Yet it remains undemonstrated whether this advantage holds for voices. The present study examined the role of emotionally expressive context in the acquisition of voices following a single, 1-minute exposure by comparing recognition of voices experienced in engaging and neutral contexts at two retention intervals. Listeners were exposed to a series of emotionally nuanced and neutral videotaped narratives produced by performers, and tested on the recognition of excerpted voice samples, by indicating whether they had heard the voice before, immediately and after a one-week delay. Excerpts were voices from exposed videotaped narratives, but utilized verbal material taken from a second (nonexposed) narrative provided by the same performer. Overall, participants were consistently able to distinguish between voices that were exposed during the video session and voices that were not exposed. Voices experienced in emotional, engaging contexts were significantly better recognized than those in neutral ones both immediately and after a one-week delay. Our findings provide the first evidence that new voices can be acquired rapidly from one-time exposure and that nuanced context facilitates initially inducting new voices into a repertory of personally familiar voices in long-term memory. The results converge with neurological evidence to suggest that cerebral processes differ for familiar and unfamiliar voices.

Effects of Age and Sex on Subcortical Volumes

Purpose

In an increasingly aging society, it is of great importance to consider trajectories of subcortical volumes at different ages for understanding biological markers of aging. Thus, we investigated sex, age, and their interactions on subcortical volumes, including the basal ganglia (caudate, putamen, accumbens, and pallidum), thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala.

Methods

We analyzed the adult lifespan trajectory of subcortical volumes and asymmetries in 563 healthy subjects aged from 19 to 86 using magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) data from the publicly available 7IXI data set.

Results

The sex made strong contributions to the trajectories of subcortical volumes with aging, including the right putamen, right pallidum, bilateral thalamus, hippocampus, and amygdala. The volume of the right putamen, right pallidum, and right thalamus decreased more rapidly in males than in females, and the volume of the left thalamus, bilateral hippocampus, and amygdala in males followed a quadratic model, while those in females followed a linear decline model. The asymmetries in the caudate and hippocampus showed a linear decline, and a sex and age interaction was found in the hippocampus; that is, the asymmetry in the hippocampus decreased only in the males and not in the females. Changes in the accumbens and pallidum fit quadratic trajectories, in which females increased until 39.26 years old in the accumbens asymmetry and then began to rapidly decline, and males showed a linear decline. The asymmetry in the pallidum in males and females showed a slow decreasing period until almost 45 years of age and then increased.

Conclusion

The results suggest that compared with females, males have a faster decline in the volume of the right putamen, right pallidum, and right thalamus, while aging occurred later but also faster in the left thalamus, bilateral hippocampus, and amygdala. Interestingly, we found the inflection point in the thalamus, bilateral hippocampus, and amygdala volume in the quadratic model, and after this point, the volume change accelerated with aging, which may have resulted from the stronger work pressure in the middle-aged men and the low levels of testosterone in the older adults. The interaction of age and sex on individual subcortical structures provides evidence to support the impact of sex on psychopathologies associated with degenerative brain disorders in the elderly. The findings may be significant to investigate the occurrence and prevalence of degenerative brain disorders in males and females. Future studies can focus on the functional and behavioral relations with subcortical structures for preventive measures of related disorders.

Acute alcohol and cognition: Remembering what it causes us to forget

Addiction has been conceptualized as a specific form of memory that appropriates typically adaptive neural mechanisms of learning to produce the progressive spiral of drug-seeking and drug-taking behavior, perpetuating the path to addiction through aberrant processes of drug-related learning and memory. From that perspective, to understand the development of alcohol use disorders, it is critical to identify how a single exposure to alcohol enters into or alters the processes of learning and memory, so that involvement of and changes in neuroplasticity processes responsible for learning and memory can be identified early. This review characterizes the effects produced by acute alcohol intoxication as a function of brain region and memory neurocircuitry. In general, exposure to ethanol doses that produce intoxicating effects causes consistent impairments in learning and memory processes mediated by specific brain circuitry, whereas lower doses either have no effect or produce a facilitation of memory under certain task conditions. Therefore, acute ethanol does not produce a global impairment of learning and memory, and can actually facilitate particular types of memory, perhaps particular types of memory that facilitate the development of excessive alcohol use. In addition, the effects on cognition are dependent on brain region, task demands, dose received, pharmacokinetics, and tolerance. Additionally, we explore the underlying alterations in neurophysiology produced by acute alcohol exposure that help to explain these changes in cognition and highlight future directions for research. Through understanding the impact that acute alcohol intoxication has on cognition, the preliminary changes potentially causing a problematic addiction memory can better be identified.

Threat learning promotes generalization of episodic memory

The ability to generalize from and distinguish between aversive memories and novel experiences is critical to survival. Previous research has revealed mechanisms underlying generalization of threat-conditioned defensive responses, but little is known about generalization of episodic memory for threatening events. Here we tested if aversive learning influences generalization of episodic memory for threatening events in human adults. Subjects underwent Pavlovian threat-conditioning in which objects from one category were paired with a shock and objects from a different category were unpaired. The next day, subjects underwent a recognition memory test that included old, highly similar, and entirely novel items from the shock-paired and shock-unpaired object categories. Results showed that items highly similar to those from the object category previously paired with shock were mistaken for old items more often than items from the shock-unpaired category. This finding indicates that threat learning promotes generalization of episodic memory, and is consistent with the idea that threat generalization is an active process that may be adaptive for avoiding a myriad of potential threats following an emotional experience. Enhanced generalization of aversive episodic memories may be maladaptive, however, when old threat memories are inappropriately reactivated in harmless situations, exemplified in a number of stress- and anxiety-related disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2019 APA, all rights reserved).

Evaluation of Task-Related Brain Activity: Is There a Role for 18F FDG-PET Imaging?

Positron emission tomography (PET) with 2-[18F]-fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) has been widely used for the evaluation of cortical glucose metabolism in several neurodegenerative disorders while its potential role in the evaluation of cortical and subcortical activity during a task in the healthy and pathological brain still remains to be a matter of debate. Few studies have been carried out in order to investigate the potential role of this radiotracer for the evaluation of brain glucose consumption during dynamic brain activation. The aim of this review is to provide a general overview of the applications of FDG-PET in the evaluation of cortical activation at rest and during tasks, describing first the physiological basis of FDG distribution in brain and its kinetic in vivo. An overview of the imaging protocols and image interpretation will be provided as well. As a last aspect, the results of the main studies in this field will be summarized and the results of PET findings performed in healthy subjects and patients suffering from various diseases will be reported.

Cortisol stress reactivity in women, diurnal variations, and hormonal contraceptives: studies from the Family Health Patterns Project

Women have smaller cortisol responses to psychological stress than men do, and women taking hormonal contraceptives (HC+) have smaller responses than HC- women. Cortisol secretion undergoes substantial diurnal variation, with elevated levels in the morning and lower levels in the afternoon, and these variations are accompanied by differences in response to acute stress. However, the impact of HC use on these diurnal relationships has not been examined. We tested saliva cortisol values in 744 healthy young adults, 351 men and 393 women, 254 HC- and 139 HC+, who were assigned to morning (9:00 am) or afternoon (1:00 pm) test sessions that were held both on a rest day and on a stress day that included public speaking and mental arithmetic challenges. Saliva cortisol responses to stress were largest in men and progressively smaller in HC- and in HC+ women (F = 23.26, p < .0001). In the morning test sessions, HC+ women had significantly elevated rest day cortisol levels (t = 5.99, p ≪ .0001, Cohen's d = 0.95) along with a complete absence of response on the stress day. In the afternoon sessions, both HC+ and HC- women had normal rest-day cortisol levels and normal responses to the stressors. Heart rates at rest and during stress did not vary by time of day or HC status. Cortisol stress responses in HC+ women are absent in the morning and normal in size by early afternoon. Studies of stress reactivity should account for time of day in evaluating cortisol responses in women using hormonal contraceptives.

Effective connectivity within the ventromedial prefrontal cortex-hippocampus-amygdala network during the elaboration of emotional autobiographical memories

Autobiographical memories (AMs) are often colored by emotions experienced during an event or those arising following further appraisals. However, how affective components of memories affect the brain-wide network recruited during the recollection of AMs remains largely unknown. Here, we examined effective connectivity during the elaboration of AMs - when retrieved episodic details are integrated to form a vivid construct - in the network composed by ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), hippocampus and amygdala, three key regions associated with memory and affective processes. Functional MRI data was collected while volunteers recollected personal events of different types of valence and emotional intensity. Using dynamic causal modeling, we characterized the connections within the triadic network, and examined how they were modulated by the emotional intensity experienced during an event, and the valence of the affect evoked when recollecting the associated memory. Results primarily indicated the existence of a vmPFC to hippocampus effective connectivity during memory elaboration. Furthermore, the strength of the connectivity increased when participants relived memories of highly emotionally arousing events or that elicited stronger positive affect. These results indicate that the vmPFC drives hippocampal activity during memory elaboration, and plays a critical role in shaping affective responses that emanate from AMs.

Neurons in the Human Left Amygdala Automatically Encode Subjective Value Irrespective of Task

The amygdala plays an important role in the computation of internal reward signals. In animals it has been shown to enable a stimulus to indicate the current value of a reinforcer. However, the exact nature of the current value representations in humans remains unknown. Specifically, do neurons of the human amygdala represent current value signals only in tasks requiring valuation? We recorded from 406 neurons in the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, parahippocampal cortex, entorhinal cortex, and hippocampus of 6 neurosurgical patients while subjects repeatedly viewed 40 different pictures of sweet or salty "junk food" items in 2 different tasks. Neural activity during stimulus inspection in a valuation task reflected food preferences in the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, hippocampus, and entorhinal cortex. Notably, only left amygdala activity represented these food preferences even in a sweet-salty classification task. Valuation signals of the left amygdala thus appear to be stimulus-, not-task driven.

Behavioral and neural indices of affective coloring for neutral social stimuli

Emotional processing often continues beyond the presentation of emotionally evocative stimuli, which can result in affective biasing or coloring of subsequently encountered events. Here, we describe neural correlates of affective coloring and examine how individual differences in affective style impact the magnitude of affective coloring. We conducted functional magnetic resonance imaging in 117 adults who passively viewed negative, neutral and positive pictures presented 2 s prior to neutral faces. Brain responses to neutral faces were modulated by the valence of preceding pictures, with greater activation for faces following negative (vs positive) pictures in the amygdala, dorsomedial and lateral prefrontal cortex, ventral visual cortices, posterior superior temporal sulcus, and angular gyrus. Three days after the magnetic resonance imaging scan, participants rated their memory and liking of previously encountered neutral faces. Individuals higher in trait positive affect and emotional reappraisal rated faces as more likable when preceded by emotionally arousing (negative or positive) pictures. In addition, greater amygdala responses to neutral faces preceded by positively valenced pictures were associated with greater memory for these faces 3 days later. Collectively, these results reveal individual differences in how emotions spill over onto the processing of unrelated social stimuli, resulting in persistent and affectively biased evaluations of such stimuli.

Stress physiology and memory for emotional information: Moderation by individual differences in pubertal hormones

In contrast to a large body of work concerning the effects of physiological stress reactivity on children's socioemotional functioning, far less attention has been devoted to understanding the effects of such reactivity on cognitive, including mnemonic, functioning. How well children learn and remember information under stress has implications for a range of educational, clinical, and legal outcomes. We evaluated 8-14 year olds' (N = 94, 50 female) memory for negative, neutral, and positive images. Youth had seen the images a week previously as a part of a laboratory stress task. At encoding and retrieval, and in between, youth provided saliva samples that were later assayed for cortisol, salivary α amylase (sAA), testosterone, and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA). Overall, higher cortisol reactivity to the lab task predicted enhanced memory for emotional but not neutral images. However, cortisol further interacted with pubertal hormones (testosterone and DHEA) to predict memory. Among girls with lower pubertal hormone levels, greater cortisol reactivity was associated with enhanced memory for negative information, whereas among boys with higher pubertal hormone levels, cortisol reactivity was associated with enhanced memory for positive information. sAA, was unrelated to memory. Overall, our findings reveal that individual differences in hormone levels associated with pubertal development have implications for our understanding of how stress-responsive biological systems directly and interactively influence cognitive outcomes. (PsycINFO Database Record

Goal-relevant situations facilitate memory of neutral faces

Emotional situations are typically better remembered than neutral situations, but the psychological conditions and brain mechanisms underlying this effect remain debated. Stimulus valence and affective arousal have been suggested to explain the major role of emotional stimuli in memory facilitation. However, neither valence nor arousal are sufficient affective dimensions to explain the effect of memory facilitation. Several studies showed that negative and positive details are better remembered than neutral details. However, other studies showed that neutral information encoded and coupled with arousal did not result in a memory advantage compared with neutral information not coupled with arousal. Therefore, we suggest that the fundamental affective dimension responsible for memory facilitation is goal relevance. To test this hypothesis at behavioral and neural levels, we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging study and used neutral faces embedded in goal-relevant or goal-irrelevant daily life situations. At the behavioral level, we found that neutral faces encountered in goal-relevant situations were better remembered than those encountered in goal-irrelevant situations. To explain this effect, we studied neural activations involved in goal-relevant processing at encoding and in subsequent neutral face recognition. At encoding, activation of emotional brain regions (anterior cingulate, ventral striatum, ventral tegmental area, and substantia nigra) was greater for processing of goal-relevant situations than for processing of goal-irrelevant situations. At the recognition phase, despite the presentation of neutral faces, brain activation involved in social processing (superior temporal sulcus) to successfully remember identities was greater for previously encountered faces in goal-relevant than in goal-irrelevant situations.

Specificity of Primate Amygdalar Pathways to Hippocampus

The amygdala projects to hippocampus in pathways through which affective or social stimuli may influence learning and memory. We investigated the still unknown amygdalar termination patterns and their postsynaptic targets in hippocampus from system to synapse in rhesus monkeys of both sexes. The amygdala robustly innervated the stratum lacunosum-moleculare layer of cornu ammonis fields and uncus anteriorly. Sparser terminations in posterior hippocampus innervated the radiatum and pyramidal layers at the prosubicular/CA1 juncture. The terminations, which were larger than other afferents in the surrounding neuropil, position the amygdala to influence hippocampal input anteriorly, and its output posteriorly. Most amygdalar boutons (76-80%) innervated spines of excitatory hippocampal neurons, and most of the remaining innervated presumed inhibitory neurons, identified by morphology and label with parvalbumin or calretinin, which distinguished nonoverlapping neurochemical classes of hippocampal inhibitory neurons. In CA1, amygdalar axons innervated some calretinin neurons, which disinhibit pyramidal neurons. By contrast, in CA3 the amygdala innervated both calretinin and parvalbumin neurons; the latter strongly inhibit nearby excitatory neurons. In CA3, amygdalar pathways also made closely spaced dual synapses on excitatory neurons. The strong excitatory synapses in CA3 may facilitate affective context representations and trigger sharp-wave ripples associated with memory consolidation. When the amygdala is excessively activated during traumatic events, the specialized innervation of excitatory neurons and the powerful parvalbumin inhibitory neurons in CA3 may allow the suppression of activity of nearby neurons that receive weaker nonamygdalar input, leading to biased passage of highly charged affective stimuli and generalized fear.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Strong pathways from the amygdala targeted the anterior hippocampus, and more weakly its posterior sectors, positioned to influence a variety of emotional and cognitive functions. In hippocampal field CA1, the amygdala innervated some calretinin neurons, which disinhibit excitatory neurons. By contrast, in CA3 the amygdala innervated calretinin as well as some of the powerful parvalbumin inhibitory neurons and may help balance the activity of neural ensembles to allow social interactions, learning, and memory. These results suggest that when the amygdala is hyperactive during emotional upheaval, it strongly activates excitatory hippocampal neurons and parvalbumin inhibitory neurons in CA3, which can suppress nearby neurons that receive weaker input from other sources, biasing the passage of stimuli with high emotional import and leading to generalized fear.

Anxiety, Depression, and Decision Making: A Computational Perspective

In everyday life, the outcomes of our actions are rarely certain. Further, we often lack the information needed to precisely estimate the probability and value of potential outcomes as well as how much effort will be required by the courses of action under consideration. Under such conditions of uncertainty, individual differences in the estimation and weighting of these variables, and in reliance on model-free versus model-based decision making, have the potential to strongly influence our behavior. Both anxiety and depression are associated with difficulties in decision making. Further, anxiety is linked to increased engagement in threat-avoidance behaviors and depression is linked to reduced engagement in reward-seeking behaviors. The precise deficits, or biases, in decision making associated with these common forms of psychopathology remain to be fully specified. In this article, we review evidence for which of the computations supporting decision making are altered in anxiety and depression and consider the potential consequences for action selection. In addition, we provide a schematic framework that integrates the findings reviewed and will hopefully be of value to future studies.

Retuning of lexical-semantic representations: Repetition and spacing effects in word-meaning priming

Current models of word-meaning access typically assume that lexical-semantic representations of ambiguous words (e.g., 'bark of the dog/tree') reach a relatively stable state in adulthood, with only the relative frequencies of meanings and immediate sentence context determining meaning preference. However, recent experience also affects interpretation: recently encountered word-meanings become more readily available (Rodd et al., 2016, 2013). Here, 3 experiments investigated how multiple encounters with word-meanings influence the subsequent interpretation of these ambiguous words. Participants heard ambiguous words contextually-disambiguated towards a particular meaning and, after a 20- to 30-min delay, interpretations of the words were tested in isolation. We replicate the finding that 1 encounter with an ambiguous word biased the later interpretation of this word towards the primed meaning for both subordinate (Experiments 1, 2, 3) and dominant meanings (Experiment 1). In addition, for the first time, we show cumulative effects of multiple repetitions of both the same and different meanings. The effect of a single subordinate exposure persisted after a subsequent encounter with the dominant meaning, compared to a dominant exposure alone (Experiment 1). Furthermore, 3 subordinate word-meaning repetitions provided an additional boost to priming compared to 1, although only when their presentation was spaced (Experiments 2, 3); massed repetitions provided no such boost (Experiments 1, 3). These findings indicate that comprehension is guided by the collective effect of multiple recently activated meanings and that the spacing of these activations is key to producing lasting updates to the lexical-semantic network. (PsycINFO Database Record

Emotional arousal and memory after deep encoding

Emotion often enhances long-term memory. One mechanism for this enhancement is heightened arousal during encoding. However, reducing arousal, via emotion regulation (ER) instructions, has not been associated with reduced memory. In fact, the opposite pattern has been observed: stronger memory for emotional stimuli encoded with an ER instruction to reduce arousal. This pattern may be due to deeper encoding required by ER instructions. In the current research, we examine the effects of emotional arousal and deep-encoding on memory across three studies. In Study 1, adult participants completed a writing task (deep-encoding) for encoding negative, neutral, and positive picture stimuli, whereby half the emotion stimuli had the ER instruction to reduce the emotion. Memory was strong across conditions, and no memory enhancement was observed for any condition. In Study 2, adult participants completed the same writing task as Study 1, as well as a shallow-encoding task for one-third of negative, neutral, and positive trials. Memory was strongest for deep vs. shallow encoding trials, with no effects of emotion or ER instruction. In Study 3, adult participants completed a shallow-encoding task for negative, neutral, and positive stimuli, with findings indicating enhanced memory for negative emotional stimuli. Findings suggest that deep encoding must be acknowledged as a source of memory enhancement when examining manipulations of emotion-related arousal.

Reading memory formation from the eyes

At any time, we are processing thousands of stimuli, but only few of them will be remembered hours or days later. Is there any way to predict which ones? Here, we tested whether the pupil response to ongoing stimuli, an indicator of physiological arousal known to be relevant for memory formation, is a reliable predictor of long-term memory for these stimuli, over at least 1 day. Pupil dilation was tracked while participants performed visual and auditory encoding tasks. Memory was tested immediately after encoding and 24 hr later. Irrespective of the encoding modality, trial-by-trial variations in pupil dilation predicted reliably which stimuli were recalled in the immediate and 24 hr-delayed tests, in particular for emotionally arousing stimuli. These results show that our eyes may provide a window into the formation of long-term memories. Furthermore, our findings underline the important role of central arousal systems in the rapid formation of memories in the brain, possibly by gating synaptic plasticity mechanisms in the neocortex.

A Mathematical Model Captures the Structure of Subjective Affect

Although it is possible to observe when another person is having an emotional moment, we also derive information about the affective states of others from what they tell us they are feeling. In an effort to distill the complexity of affective experience, psychologists routinely focus on a simplified subset of subjective rating scales (i.e., dimensions) that capture considerable variability in reported affect: reported valence (i.e., how good or bad?) and reported arousal (e.g., how strong is the emotion you are feeling?). Still, existing theoretical approaches address the basic organization and measurement of these affective dimensions differently. Some approaches organize affect around the dimensions of bipolar valence and arousal (e.g., the circumplex model), whereas alternative approaches organize affect around the dimensions of unipolar positivity and unipolar negativity (e.g., the bivariate evaluative model). In this report, we (a) replicate the data structure observed when collected according to the two approaches described above, and reinterpret these data to suggest that the relationship between each pair of affective dimensions is conditional on valence ambiguity, and (b) formalize this structure with a mathematical model depicting a valence ambiguity dimension that decreases in range as arousal decreases (a triangle). This model captures variability in affective ratings better than alternative approaches, increasing variance explained from ~60% to over 90% without adding parameters.

Investigating the impact of moulage on simulation engagement - A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Simulation Based Education (SBE) is used as a primer for clinical education in nursing and other health professions. Participant engagement strategies and good debriefing have been identified as key for effective simulations. The environment in which the simulation is situated also plays a large role in the degree of participant engagement. Various cues are staged within simulations to enhance this engagement process. Moulage techniques are used in current-day simulation to mimic illnesses and wounds, acting as visual and tactile cues for the learner. To effectively utilise moulage in simulation, significant expense is required to train simulation staff and to purchase relevant equipment.

OBJECTIVE

Explore the use of moulage in simulation practice today and its influence on participant engagement.

DESIGN

Using a systematic process to extract papers, we reviewed the literature with a critical-realist lens.

DATA SOURCES

CINAHL Complete, ERIC, Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, SCOPUS, Web of Science, Proquest, Science Direct and SAGE.

REVIEW METHODS

10 databases were systematically reviewed using the keyword "moulage" to answer the question "How does the authenticity of moulage impact on participant engagement?". 1318 records were identified prior to exclusion criterion were applied. 10 articles were targeted for review, following exclusion for English language and publication between 2005 and 2015.

RESULTS

The resulting 10 papers were assessed for quality using the Medical Education Research Study Quality Instrument (MERSQI). The majority of papers were situated in dermatology teaching, with only one nursing paper. Study participants were both undergraduate and postgraduate. Most of the studies were undertaken at a university setting. No papers comprehensively addressed whether the authenticity of moulage influences learner engagement.

CONCLUSIONS

Results were limited, yet clearly outline a widely held assumption that moulage is essential in simulation-based education for improved realism and subsequent learner engagement. Despite this, there is no clear evidence from the literature that this is the case, suggesting that further research to explore the impact of moulage on participant engagement is warranted. A number of recommendations are made for future research.

Sex-related differences in behavioral and amygdalar responses to compound facial threat cues

During face perception, we integrate facial expression and eye gaze to take advantage of their shared signals. For example, fear with averted gaze provides a congruent avoidance cue, signaling both threat presence and its location, whereas fear with direct gaze sends an incongruent cue, leaving threat location ambiguous. It has been proposed that the processing of different combinations of threat cues is mediated by dual processing routes: reflexive processing via magnocellular (M) pathway and reflective processing via parvocellular (P) pathway. Because growing evidence has identified a variety of sex differences in emotional perception, here we also investigated how M and P processing of fear and eye gaze might be modulated by observer's sex, focusing on the amygdala, a structure important to threat perception and affective appraisal. We adjusted luminance and color of face stimuli to selectively engage M or P processing and asked observers to identify emotion of the face. Female observers showed more accurate behavioral responses to faces with averted gaze and greater left amygdala reactivity both to fearful and neutral faces. Conversely, males showed greater right amygdala activation only for M-biased averted-gaze fear faces. In addition to functional reactivity differences, females had proportionately greater bilateral amygdala volumes, which positively correlated with behavioral accuracy for M-biased fear. Conversely, in males only the right amygdala volume was positively correlated with accuracy for M-biased fear faces. Our findings suggest that M and P processing of facial threat cues is modulated by functional and structural differences in the amygdalae associated with observer's sex.

Dissociable meta-analytic brain networks contribute to coordinated emotional processing

Meta-analytic techniques for mining the neuroimaging literature continue to exert an impact on our conceptualization of functional brain networks contributing to human emotion and cognition. Traditional theories regarding the neurobiological substrates contributing to affective processing are shifting from regional- towards more network-based heuristic frameworks. To elucidate differential brain network involvement linked to distinct aspects of emotion processing, we applied an emergent meta-analytic clustering approach to the extensive body of affective neuroimaging results archived in the BrainMap database. Specifically, we performed hierarchical clustering on the modeled activation maps from 1,747 experiments in the affective processing domain, resulting in five meta-analytic groupings of experiments demonstrating whole-brain recruitment. Behavioral inference analyses conducted for each of these groupings suggested dissociable networks supporting: (1) visual perception within primary and associative visual cortices, (2) auditory perception within primary auditory cortices, (3) attention to emotionally salient information within insular, anterior cingulate, and subcortical regions, (4) appraisal and prediction of emotional events within medial prefrontal and posterior cingulate cortices, and (5) induction of emotional responses within amygdala and fusiform gyri. These meta-analytic outcomes are consistent with a contemporary psychological model of affective processing in which emotionally salient information from perceived stimuli are integrated with previous experiences to engender a subjective affective response. This study highlights the utility of using emergent meta-analytic methods to inform and extend psychological theories and suggests that emotions are manifest as the eventual consequence of interactions between large-scale brain networks.