Reconstitution of functional eukaryotic ribosomes from Dictyostelium discoideum ribosomal proteins and RNA

A Comparative Perspective on Ribosome Biogenesis: Unity and Diversity Across the Tree of Life

Ribosomes are universally conserved ribonucleoprotein complexes involved in the decoding of the genetic information contained in messenger RNAs into proteins. Accordingly, ribosome biogenesis is a fundamental cellular process required for functional ribosome homeostasis and to preserve satisfactory gene expression capability.Although the ribosome is universally conserved, its biogenesis shows an intriguing degree of variability across the tree of life . These differences also raise yet unresolved questions. Among them are (a) what are, if existing, the remaining ancestral common principles of ribosome biogenesis ; (b) what are the molecular impacts of the evolution history and how did they contribute to (re)shape the ribosome biogenesis pathway across the tree of life ; (c) what is the extent of functional divergence and/or convergence (functional mimicry), and in the latter case (if existing) what is the molecular basis; (d) considering the universal ribosome conservation, what is the capability of functional plasticity and cellular adaptation of the ribosome biogenesis pathway?In this review, we provide a brief overview of ribosome biogenesis across the tree of life and try to illustrate some potential and/or emerging answers to these unresolved questions.

Ribosome Biogenesis in Archaea

Making ribosomes is a major cellular process essential for the maintenance of functional ribosome homeostasis and to ensure appropriate gene expression. Strikingly, although ribosomes are universally conserved ribonucleoprotein complexes decoding the genetic information contained in messenger RNAs into proteins, their biogenesis shows an intriguing degree of variability across the tree of life. In this review, we summarize our knowledge on the least understood ribosome biogenesis pathway: the archaeal one. Furthermore, we highlight some evolutionary conserved and divergent molecular features of making ribosomes across the tree of life.

Spontaneous emergence of cell-like organization in Xenopus egg extracts

Every daughter cell inherits two things from its mother: genetic information and a spatially organized complement of macromolecular complexes and organelles. The extent to which de novo self-organization, as opposed to inheritance of an already organized state, can suffice to yield functional cells is uncertain. We used Xenopus laevis egg extracts to show that homogenized interphase egg cytoplasm self-organizes over the course of ~30 minutes into compartments 300 to 400 micrometers in length that resemble cells. Formation of these cell-like compartments required adenosine triphosphate and microtubule polymerization but did not require added demembranated sperm nuclei with their accompanying centrosomes or actin polymerization. In cycling extracts with added sperm, the compartments underwent multiple cycles of division and reorganization, with mother compartments giving rise to two daughters at the end of each mitotic cycle. These results indicate that the cytoplasm can generate much of the spatial organization and cell cycle function of the early embryo.

A coevolution-guided model for the rotor of the bacterial flagellar motor

The Salmonella typhimurium trans-membrane FliF MS ring templates assembly of the rotary bacterial flagellar motor, which also contains a cytoplasmic C-ring. A full-frame fusion of FliF with the rotor protein FliG assembles rings in non-motile expression hosts. 3D electron microscopy reconstructions of these FliFFliG rings show three high electron-density sub-volumes. 3D-classification revealed heterogeneity of the assigned cytoplasmic volume consistent with FliG lability. We used residue coevolution to construct homodimer building blocks for ring assembly, with X-ray crystal structures from other species and injectisome analogs. The coevolution signal validates folds and, importantly, indicates strong homodimer contacts for three ring building motifs (RBMs), initially identified in injectisome structures. It also indicates that the cofolded domains of the FliG N-terminal domain (FliG_N) with embedded α-helical FliF carboxy-terminal tail homo-oligomerize. The FliG middle and C-terminal domains (FliG_MC) have a weak signal for homo-dimerization but have coevolved to conserve their stacking contact. The homodimers and their ring models fit well into the 3D reconstruction. We hypothesize that a stable FliF periplasmic hub provides a platform for FliG ring self-assembly, but the FliG_MC ring has only limited stability without the C-ring. We also present a mechanical model for torque transmission in the FliFFliG ring.

Quality control mechanisms during ribosome maturation

Protein synthesis on ribosomes is carefully quality-controlled to ensure the faithful transmission of genetic information from mRNA to protein. Many of these mechanisms rely on communication between distant sites on the ribosomes, and thus on the integrity of the ribosome structure. Furthermore, haploinsufficiency of ribosomal proteins, which increases the chances of forming incompletely assembled ribosomes, can predispose to cancer. Finally, release of inactive ribosomes into the translating pool will lead to their degradation together with the degradation of the bound mRNA. Together, these findings suggest that quality control mechanisms must be in place to survey nascent ribosomes and ensure their functionality. This review gives an account of these mechanisms as currently known.

Saccharomyces cerevisiae ribosomal protein L26 is not essential for ribosome assembly and function

Ribosomal proteins play important roles in ribosome biogenesis and function. Here, we study the evolutionarily conserved L26 in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, which assembles into pre-60S ribosomal particles in the nucle(ol)us. Yeast L26 is one of the many ribosomal proteins encoded by two functional genes. We have disrupted both genes; surprisingly, the growth of the resulting rpl26 null mutant is apparently identical to that of the isogenic wild-type strain. The absence of L26 minimally alters 60S ribosomal subunit biogenesis. Polysome analysis revealed the appearance of half-mers. Analysis of pre-rRNA processing indicated that L26 is mainly required to optimize 27S pre-rRNA maturation, without which the release of pre-60S particles from the nucle(ol)us is partially impaired. Ribosomes lacking L26 exhibit differential reactivity to dimethylsulfate in domain I of 25S/5.8S rRNAs but apparently are able to support translation in vivo with wild-type accuracy. The bacterial homologue of yeast L26, L24, is a primary rRNA binding protein required for 50S ribosomal subunit assembly in vitro and in vivo. Our results underscore potential differences between prokaryotic and eukaryotic ribosome assembly. We discuss the reasons why yeast L26 plays such an apparently nonessential role in the cell.

The putative NTPase Fap7 mediates cytoplasmic 20S pre-rRNA processing through a direct interaction with Rps14

One of the proteins identified as being involved in ribosome biogenesis by high-throughput studies, a putative P-loop-type kinase termed Fap7 (YDL166c), was shown to be required for the conversion of 20S pre-rRNA to 18S rRNA. However, the mechanism underlying this function has remained unclear. Here we demonstrate that Fap7 is strictly required for cleavage of the 20S pre-rRNA at site D in the cytoplasm. Genetic depletion of Fap7 causes accumulation of only the 20S pre-rRNA, which could be detected not only in 43S preribosomes but also in 80S-sized complexes. Fap7 is not a structural component of 43S preribosomes but likely transiently interacts with them by directly binding to Rps14, a ribosomal protein that is found near the 3' end of the 18S rRNA. Consistent with an NTPase activity, conserved residues predicted to be required for nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) hydrolysis are essential for Fap7 function in vivo. We propose that Fap7 mediates cleavage of the 20S pre-rRNA at site D by directly interacting with Rps14 and speculate that it is an enzyme that functions as an NTP-dependent molecular switch in 18S rRNA maturation.

Two Dictyostelium ribosomal proteins act as RNases for specific classes of mRNAs

Phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 leads to the stabilization of pre-spore specific mRNAs during development of Dictyostelium discoideum. The purification of S6 kinase has allowed the identification of protein S11 as the mRNase specific for pre-spore mRNAs. Methylation of ribosomal protein S31 leads to the destabilization of ribosomal protein mRNAs. The purification of S31 methyltransferase has allowed the identification of protein S29 as the mRNAse specific for ribosomal protein mRNAs.

Proteins S7, S10, S16 and S19 of the human 40S ribosomal subunit are most resistant to dissociation by salt

The protein components of human 40S ribosomal subunits were dissociated by centrifugation in gradients of sucrose and LiCl in the presence of 0.5 M KCl. The proteins that split off were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and 2D-PAGE. The order of dissociation of the proteins, depending on the salt concentration (from 0.8 M to 1.55 M), was established. The majority of the proteins started to split off simultaneously at a monovalent cation concentration of 0.8 M. Ten proteins were found to be more resistant; of these proteins S7, S10, S16, and S19 were retained most strongly and thereby may be considered to be core proteins.

Induction of ribosomal subunits misassembly by antisense RNAs to control cell growth

The assembly of ribosomal subunits starting from free ribosomal RNA and protein of Dictyostelium discoideum was induced in vitro in the presence of several oligoribonucleotides complementary to defined sequences of ribosomal RNA. The reconstituted particles had a full complement of ribosomal proteins, but did not function in an in vitro protein synthesis system and were disassembled following interaction with mRNA. The same result was obtained in vivo by fusing the oligodeossiribonucleotides coding for the selected oligoribonucleotides to the promoter of the gene coding for contact site A protein. This gene is expressed only in the first part of development. Transfected growing cells, transferred in developing buffer in the presence of pulses of cAMP, accumulated significant amounts of the oligoribonucleotides. When retransferred to the growth medium, they grew progressively more slowly, until their doubling time doubled, apparently due to the availability of a limiting amount of functional ribosomes. To avoid disassembly of misassembled subunits (G. Mangiarotti et al., 1997, J. Biol. Chem. 272, 27818-27822), two oligoribonucleotides complementary to sequences present at the 5' ends of pre-17S and pre-26S RNAs were also induced to accumulate during early development with the same technique. When transfected cells were retransferred to the growth medium, their rate of growth declined rapidly to zero and cells died, apparently because they were unable to disassemble misassembled ribosomal subunits and avoid their entry into polyribosomes. This technique to perturb protein synthesis, arrest cell growth, and cause cell suicide will be tested in abnormally growing animal cells.

Cell type specificity and mechanism of control of a gene may be reverted in different strains of Dictyostelium discoideum

Twelve genes which are expressed exclusively in pre-spore cells of Dictyostelium strain AX3 are expressed exclusively in pre-stalk cells of strain AX2. One gene has the opposite behavior: it is expressed in pre-stalk cells in AX3 and in pre-spore cells in AX2. The change in cell type specificity involves a change in the mechanism of control of gene expression. When they are expressed in pre-stalk cells, genes are controlled at the level of transcription, whilst in pre-spore cells, they are controlled at the level of mRNA stability. Genes expressed in pre-stalk cells in strain AX2, fused with an AX2 pre-spore specific promoter, become regulated at the level of mRNA stability. These findings indicate that at least a group of pre-stalk mRNAs possess the cis-destabilizing element typical of pre-spore mRNAs, though they are not destabilized in disaggregated cells. This is due to the fact that ribosomal protein S6, phosphorylation of which is responsible for controlling the stability of pre-spore mRNAs, is not dephosphorylated in disaggregated pre-stalk cells. These cells lack an S6 phosphatase activity which has been purified from disaggregated pre-spore cells.

Ribosome synthesis in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

The synthesis of ribosomes is one of the major metabolic pathways in all cells. In addition to around 75 individual ribosomal proteins and 4 ribosomal RNAs, synthesis of a functional eukaryotic ribosome requires a remarkable number of trans-acting factors. Here, we will discuss the recent, and often surprising, advances in our understanding of ribosome synthesis in the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae. These will underscore the unexpected complexity of eukaryotic ribosome synthesis.

The phosphorylation of protein S6 modulates the interaction of the 40 S ribosomal subunit with the 5'-untranslated region of a dictyostelium pre-spore-specific mRNA and controls its stability

AC914 mRNA, a pre-spore-specific mRNA that accumulates only in the post-aggregation stage of development, is transcribed constitutively as shown by nuclear run-off experiments and by fusing its promoter to the luciferase reporter gene. The same mRNA disappears quickly from disaggregated cells. If the 5'-untranslated region (5'UTR) of the constitutively expressed Actin 15 mRNA is substituted for the 5'UTR of AC914 mRNA, this can no longer be destabilized and accumulates both in growing and disaggregated cells. If the 5'UTR of AC914 mRNA is substituted for the 5'UTR of Actin 15 mRNA, the latter accumulates only in aggregated cells. Pactamycin, but not other inhibitors of protein synthesis, prevents AC914 mRNA from being destabilized in disaggregated cells, suggesting a role of 40 S subunits in the destabilization. This has been confirmed by using an in vitro system in which the in vivo stability of different mRNAs is reproduced. A protein kinase A-dependent phosphorylation of ribosomal protein S6 determines whether 40 S subunits are capable or not of destabilizing AC914 mRNA in the in vitro system.

rRNA maturation as a "quality" control step in ribosomal subunit assembly in Dictyostelium discoideum

In Dictyostelium discoideum, newly assembled ribosomal subunits enter polyribosomes while they still contain immature rRNA. rRNA maturation requires the engagement of the subunits in protein synthesis and leads to stabilization of their structure. Maturation of pre-17 S rRNA occurs only after the newly formed 40 S ribosomal particle has entered an 80 S ribosome and participated at least in the formation of one peptide bond or in one translocation event; maturation of pre-26 S rRNA requires the presence on the 80 S particle of a peptidyl-tRNA containing at least 6 amino acids. Newly assembled particles that cannot fulfill these requirements for structural reasons are disassembled into free immature rRNA and ribosomal proteins.