Molecular identification of cytosolic prostaglandin E2 synthase that is functionally coupled with cyclooxygenase-1 in immediate prostaglandin E2 biosynthesis

p23 protects against ferroptosis of brain microvascular endothelial cells in ischemic stroke

Ferroptosis is a type of iron‑dependent regulated cell death that differs from apoptosis, autophagy or necrosis. p23 serves as a co‑chaperone and performs a unique biological function in various diseases by binding to client proteins to modulate their biological functions; however, its effect on ferroptosis remains largely unknown. In the present study, the effects of cerebral ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) injury (CIRI) or oxygen‑glucose deprivation/reoxygenation on the blood‑brain barrier (BBB) and ferroptosis in brain microvascular endothelial cells (BMECs), as well as the expression of p23, were examined. Subsequently, the effects of p23 on CIRI‑induced BBB dysfunction and BMEC ferroptosis were determined. Finally, the role of glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) in the regulatory effects of p23 on ferroptosis was detected. The results revealed that p23 protected against BBB injury caused by CIRI by inhibiting ferroptosis in BMECs. The effect of p23 on ferroptosis was then explored, and it was found that the expression of GPX4, a major regulator of ferroptosis, was promoted by p23. Furthermore, molecular docking and co‑immunoprecipitation experiments revealed that p23 could bind to GPX4 through its N‑terminal domain (1‑90aa), enhance the stability of GPX4 and inhibit the degradation of GPX4 by cycloheximide. Finally, a cerebral I/R animal model was established using GPX4 conditional knockout mice (GPX4 FosCreERT2/+), and it was revealed that the protective effect of p23 overexpression on the BBB in GPX4 FosCreERT2/+ mice was attenuated compared with that in GPX4 FosCreERT2/‑ mice. In conclusion, p23 may serve a protective role against cerebral I/R‑induced BBB injury by inhibiting ferroptosis in BMECs through enhancing the stability of GPX4, providing a potential therapeutic target for ischemic stroke.

In vitro expression of genes encoding HIF1α, VEGFA, PGE2 synthases, and PGE2 receptors in feline oral squamous cell carcinoma

Feline oral squamous cell carcinoma (FOSCC) is an aggressive tumor with poor outcomes. Mechanisms of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2)-related inflammation and angiogenesis interact in human OSCC; however, this relationship has not been reported in FOSCC, to our knowledge. We aimed to characterize expression of genes encoding PGE2 synthases (PTGES1-3), PGE2 receptors (EP1-4), hypoxia inducible factor 1α (HIF1A), and vascular and endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) in FOSCC cell lines (SCCF1-3) in vitro using reverse-transcription quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR). Expression of PTGES1, PTGES3, EP4, and VEGFA were serum-inducible in SCCF2 cells; VEGFA was also inducible in SCCF1 cells (p ≤ 0.05). Compared to other serum-treated cells, SCCF3 cells had the lowest VEGFA expression despite the highest HIF1A (p ≤ 0.05) expression. PGE2 (5 µg/mL and 35 µg/mL) was added to SCCF2 cells for 4 different times (30, 60, 120, 240 min). Both doses of PGE2 stimulated expression of HIF1A and CD147 at 240 min (p ≤ 0.05). PGE2 treatment stimulated cyclooxygenase 2 (COX2) expression at 30 min, followed by suppression at 60 and 120 min and a sharp reduction in EP4 expression at 60 min (p ≤ 0.05). Treatment of SCCF2 with PGE2 and EP4 antagonist L-161,982 increased COX2 expression, and L-161,982 (alone and in combination with PGE2) stimulated EP4 expression (p ≤ 0.05). Genes for PGE2 synthase enzymes, PGE2 receptors, HIF1α and VEGFA were expressed in FOSCC cells in vitro. SCCF2 cells responded to exogenous PGE2 and EP4 antagonism, suggesting that EP4 activity in FOSCC deserves more study.

Plasma cytokines profile in patients with Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Disease: a comparative study in terms of inflammation

BACKGROUND

Neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's disease inflict economic and health burdens on societies. Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent form of dementia, is accompanied by progressive degradation of memory, decision-making, and judgment. Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by resting tremor, rigidity, bradykinesia, and loss of balance. Extensive research has pinpointed inflammation as a cause of the onset and progression of both diseases. However, it has not been confirmed which one is more formidable in terms of inflammation.

METHODS

To assess the extent of inflammation that is implicated in AD and PD and answer the question of which one is more inflammatory, serum levels of inflammatory biomarkers, including cytokines, chemokines, and prostaglandin E2 (PEG2), were measured in AD and PD patients as well as a healthy group.

RESULTS

Our results showed a significant increase in IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-4, IL-6, IL-10, IL-12p70, IP-10, MCP-1, PEG2, and TNF-α in AD and PD patients compared with the control. Interestingly, IFN-γ did not manifest any significant difference in AD or PD patients compared with the control.

CONCLUSION

As a hallmark of our results, it could be inferred that inflammation, as the underlying etiological cause, plays a more crucial role in PD compared with AD. Based on our results, it is proposed that anti-inflammatory remedies would be putatively more effective in PD rather than AD.

PTGES3 proteolysis using the liposomal peptide-PROTAC approach

BACKGROUND

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, and the lack of effective biomarkers for early detection leads to poor therapeutic outcomes. Prostaglandin E Synthase 3 (PTGES3) is a putative prognostic marker in many solid tumors; however, its expression and biological functions in HCC have not been determined. The proteolysis-targeting chimera (PROTAC) is an established technology for targeted protein degradation. Compared to the small-molecule PROTAC, the peptide PROTAC (p-PROTAC) utilizes peptides bound to target proteins to mediate the ubiquitination and degradation of undruggable proteins. This study aimed to use the PROTAC technology to develop a PTGES3 degrader liposome complex containing a PTGES3-binding peptide and the E3 ubiquitin ligase ligand pomalidomide for regulating cell function and provide a novel pathway for treating HCC.

RESULTS

In this study, we demonstrated that PTGES3 is highly expressed in HCC at the transcriptional and protein levels; furthermore, PTGES3 was identified as a novel drug target that could potentially treat HCC. Hence, we developed PTGES3-PROTACs by adjusting the ligand ratio to optimize the efficacy of degradation agents. The results revealed that PTGES3-PROTAC effectively degraded PTGES3 protein and strongly weakened the HCC malignant phenotype in vitro and in vivo.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings revealed that the highly selective PTGES3 proteolysis is a potential therapeutic strategy for HCC, and PTGES3 degraders PTGES3-PROTACs can be developed as safe and effective drugs for HCC treatment.

Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase-1 Controls Colonic Prostaglandin E2 Production and Exerts a Protective Effect on Colitis Induced by Trinitrobenzene Sulfonic Acid in Mice

Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) is an isozyme of the prostaglandin (PG) E synthase that acts downstream of cyclooxygenase and catalyzes the conversion of PGH2 to PGE2. The impact of genetic deletion of mPGES-1 on the development of 2,4,6-trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid (TNBS)-induced colitis, a well-established model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), was investigated in this study. After administration of TNBS, mice deficient in mPGES-1 (mPGES-1-/- mice) showed more severe colitis than did wild-type (WT) mice. Histological examination revealed that mPGES-1-/- mice had markedly exacerbated symptoms of colitis. mPGES-1 expression was detectable in the colons of WT mice at both the mRNA and protein levels. Lack of mPGES-1 resulted in marked reduction of colonic PGE2 production. Our study also showed a significant increase in colonic expression of interleukin-17A (IL-17A), as well as interferon γ (IFNγ) and tumor necrosis factor α, during colitis in mPGES-1-/- mice compared with that in WT mice. Furthermore, loss of mPGES-1 increased the populations of IL-17A-producing T-helper (Th) 17 and IFNγ-producing Th1 cells in mesenteric lymph nodes. These results suggest that mPGES-1 is the main enzyme responsible for colonic PGE2 production and deficiency of mPGES-1 facilitates the development of colitis and T-cell-mediated immunity. mPGES-1 might, therefore, impact T-cell-related immune response associated with IBD.

Prostaglandin E2 in the Tumor Microenvironment, a Convoluted Affair Mediated by EP Receptors 2 and 4

The involvement of the prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) system in cancer progression has long been recognized. PGE2 functions as an autocrine and paracrine signaling molecule with pleiotropic effects in the human body. High levels of intratumoral PGE2 and overexpression of the key metabolic enzymes of PGE2 have been observed and suggested to contribute to tumor progression. This has been claimed for different types of solid tumors, including, but not limited to, lung, breast, and colon cancer. PGE2 has direct effects on tumor cells and angiogenesis that are known to promote tumor development. However, one of the main mechanisms behind PGE2 driving cancerogenesis is currently thought to be anchored in suppressed antitumor immunity, thus providing possible therapeutic targets to be used in cancer immunotherapies. EP2 and EP4, two receptors for PGE2, are emerging as being the most relevant for this purpose. This review aims to summarize the known roles of PGE2 in the immune system and its functions within the tumor microenvironment. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) has long been known to be a signaling molecule in cancer. Its presence in tumors has been repeatedly associated with disease progression. Elucidation of its effects on immunological components of the tumor microenvironment has highlighted the potential of PGE2 receptor antagonists in cancer treatment, particularly in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitor therapeutics. Adjuvant treatment could increase the response rates and the efficacy of immune-based therapies.

Identification of New Markers of Angiogenic Sprouting Using Transcriptomics: New Role for RND3

BACKGROUND

New blood vessel formation requires endothelial cells to transition from a quiescent to an invasive phenotype. Transcriptional changes are vital for this switch, but a comprehensive genome-wide approach focused exclusively on endothelial cell sprout initiation has not been reported.

METHODS

Using a model of human endothelial cell sprout initiation, we developed a protocol to physically separate cells that initiate the process of new blood vessel formation (invading cells) from noninvading cells. We used this model to perform multiple transcriptomics analyses from independent donors to monitor endothelial gene expression changes.

RESULTS

Single-cell population analyses, single-cell cluster analyses, and bulk RNA sequencing revealed common transcriptomic changes associated with invading cells. We also found that collagenase digestion used to isolate single cells upregulated the Fos proto-oncogene transcription factor. Exclusion of Fos proto-oncogene expressing cells revealed a gene signature consistent with activation of signal transduction, morphogenesis, and immune responses. Many of the genes were previously shown to regulate angiogenesis and included multiple tip cell markers. Upregulation of SNAI1 (snail family transcriptional repressor 1), PTGS2 (prostaglandin synthase 2), and JUNB (JunB proto-oncogene) protein expression was confirmed in invading cells, and silencing JunB and SNAI1 significantly reduced invasion responses. Separate studies investigated rounding 3, also known as RhoE, which has not yet been implicated in angiogenesis. Silencing rounding 3 reduced endothelial invasion distance as well as filopodia length, fitting with a pathfinding role for rounding 3 via regulation of filopodial extensions. Analysis of in vivo retinal angiogenesis in Rnd3 heterozygous mice confirmed a decrease in filopodial length compared with wild-type littermates.

CONCLUSIONS

Validation of multiple genes, including rounding 3, revealed a functional role for this gene signature early in the angiogenic process. This study expands the list of genes associated with the acquisition of a tip cell phenotype during endothelial cell sprout initiation.

Specific prostaglandins are produced in the migratory cells and the surrounding substrate to promote Drosophila border cell migration

Introduction: A key regulator of collective cell migration is prostaglandin (PG) signaling. However, it remains largely unclear whether PGs act within the migratory cells or their microenvironment to promote migration. Here we use Drosophila border cell migration as a model to uncover the cell-specific roles of two PGs in collective migration. The border cells undergo a collective and invasive migration between the nurse cells; thus, the nurse cells are the substrate and microenvironment for the border cells. Prior work found PG signaling is required for on-time border cell migration and cluster cohesion. Methods: Confocal microscopy and quantitative image analyses of available mutant alleles and RNAi lines were used to define the roles of the PGE2 and PGF2α synthases in border cell migration. Results: We find that the PGE2 synthase cPGES is required in the substrate, while the PGF2α synthase Akr1B is required in the border cells for on-time migration. Akr1B acts in both the border cells and their substrate to regulate cluster cohesion. One means by which Akr1B may regulate border cell migration and/or cluster cohesion is by promoting integrin-based adhesions. Additionally, Akr1B limits myosin activity, and thereby cellular stiffness, in the border cells, whereas cPGES limits myosin activity in both the border cells and their substrate. Decreasing myosin activity overcomes the migration delays in both akr1B and cPGES mutants, indicating the changes in cellular stiffness contribute to the migration defects. Discussion: Together these data reveal that two PGs, PGE2 and PGF2α, produced in different locations, play key roles in promoting border cell migration. These PGs likely have similar migratory versus microenvironment roles in other collective cell migrations.

Iristectorigenin C suppresses LPS-induced macrophages activation by regulating mPGES-1 expression and p38/JNK pathway

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) have been used clinically to treat inflammatory diseases clinically. However, the adverse effects of NSAIDs cannot be ignored. Therefore, it is critical for us to find alternative anti-inflammatory drugs that can reduce adverse reactions to herbal medicine, such as Iris tectorum Maxim., which has therapeutic effects and can treat inflammatory diseases and liver-related diseases.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to isolate active compounds from I. tectorum and investigate their anti-inflammatory effects and action mechanisms.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Fourteen compounds were isolated from I. tectorum using silica gel column chromatography, Sephadex LH-20, ODS and high performance liquid chromatography, and their structures were identified by examining physicochemical properties, ultraviolet spectroscopy, infrared spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Classical inflammatory cell models were established using lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated RAW264.7 cells and rat primary peritoneal macrophages to examine the effect of these compounds. To examine the action mechanisms, the nitric oxide (NO) levels were measured by Griess reagent and the levels of inflammatory cytokines in the supernatant were measured by ELISA; The expressions of major proteins in prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) synthesis and the nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways were examined by Western blotting, and the mRNA expression levels were measured by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction; and the nuclear translocation of p65 was examined by high content imaging. Molecular docking was used to predict the binding of active compound to target protein.

RESULTS

Our findings revealed that Iristectorigenin C (IT24) significantly inhibited the levels of NO and PGE2 without affecting cyclooxygenase (COX)-1/COX-2 expression in LPS-induced RAW264.7 cells and rat peritoneal macrophages. Furthermore, IT24 was shown to decrease the expression of microsomal prostaglandin synthetase-1 (mPGES-1) in LPS-induced rat peritoneal macrophages. IT24 did not suppress the phosphorylation and nuclear translocation of proteins in the NF-κB pathway, but it inhibited the phosphorylation of p38/JNK in LPS-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Additionally, molecular docking analysis indicated that IT24 may directly bind to the mPGES-1 protein.

CONCLUSION

IT24 might inhibit mPGES-1 and the p38/JNK pathway to exert its anti-inflammatory effects and could be also developed as an inhibitor of mPGES-1 to prevent and treat mPGES-1-related diseases, such as inflammatory diseases, and holds promise for further research and drug development.

A complete prostaglandin pathway from synthesis to inactivation in the oral gland of the jawless vertebrate lamprey, Lethenteron camtschaticum

Information on the prostaglandin pathway in lampreys is limited. Here, five genes related to the prostaglandin pathway from synthesis to inactivation, namely, phospholipase A2, cyclooxygenase-2, prostaglandin E synthase 3, prostaglandin D synthase, and 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase [NAD(+)], were screened and cloned from the lamprey, Lethenteron camtschaticum. Bioinformatic analysis showed that these lamprey genes are relatively conserved with teleost genes in domains, motifs, gene structure and 3D structure. Analysis of expression distribution of the genes in lamprey tissues revealed that a complete prostaglandin pathway from synthesis to inactivation exists in the oral gland of lamprey, especially the key gene of prostaglandin synthesis cyclooxygenase-2, which was highly expressed in the oral gland. Furthermore, cyclooxygenase-2 expression increased after LPS and Poly I:C stimulations. Using our established spatial metabolite database LampreyDB, six prostaglandin-related metabolites were screened from the oral gland of lamprey, four of which were highly expressed in the oral gland. This study provides new insights into prostaglandin synthesis and inactivation pathways in lamprey, thereby improving our understanding of the origin and evolution of the prostaglandin pathway and contributing to the recognition of lamprey regulatory mechanisms in development and immunity.

Allosterically inhibited PFKL via prostaglandin E2 withholds glucose metabolism and ovarian cancer invasiveness

Metastasis is the leading cause of high ovarian-cancer-related mortality worldwide. Three major processes constitute the whole metastatic cascade: invasion, intravasation, and extravasation. Tumor cells often reprogram their metabolism to gain advantages in proliferation and survival. However, whether and how those metabolic alterations contribute to the invasiveness of tumor cells has yet to be fully understood. Here we performed a genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 screening to identify genes participating in tumor cell dissemination and revealed that PTGES3 acts as an invasion suppressor in ovarian cancer. Mechanistically, PTGES3 binds to phosphofructokinase, liver type (PFKL) and generates a local source of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) to allosterically inhibit the enzymatic activity of PFKL. Repressed PFKL leads to downgraded glycolysis and the subsequent TCA cycle for glucose metabolism. However, ovarian cancer suppresses the expression of PTGES3 and disrupts the PTGES3-PGE2-PFKL inhibitory axis, leading to hyperactivation of glucose oxidation, eventually facilitating ovarian cancer cell motility and invasiveness.

Seasonal plasticity in immunocompetent cytokines (IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α), myeloid progenitor cell (CFU-GM) proliferation, and LPS-induced oxido-inflammatory aberrations in a tropical rodent Funambulus pennanti: role of melatonin

In seasonal breeders, photoperiods regulate the levels of circulatory melatonin, a well-known immunomodulator and an antioxidant. Melatonin is known to play a complex physiological role in maintaining the immune homeostasis by affecting cytokine production in immunocompetent cells. In this study, we have quantified seasonal and temporal variations in immunocompetent cytokines-IL-2, IL-6, and TNF-α-and circulatory corticosterone along with in- vitro proliferation of bone marrow-derived granulocyte macrophage-colony forming unit (CFU-GM) progenitor cells of a tropical seasonal breeder Funambulus pennanti (northern palm squirrel). Transient variations in antioxidant status of seasonal breeders might be due to the fluctuations associated with immunity and inflammation. Further, to establish a direct immunomodulatory effect of photoperiod, we recorded the LPS-induced oxidative and inflammatory responses of squirrels by housing them in artificial photoperiodic chambers mimicking summer and winter seasons respectively. We observed a marked variation in cytokines level, melatonin, and corticosterone , and CFU-GM cell proliferation during summer and winter seasons. High Peripheral melatonin levels directly correlated with cytokine IL-2 levels, and inversely correlated with TNF-α, and circulatory corticosterone level. LPS-challenged squirrels housed in short photoperiod (10L:14D; equivalent to winter days) showed a marked reduction in the components of the inflammatory cascade, CRP, TNF-α, IL-6, NOx, NF-κB, Cox-2, and PGES, with an overall improvement in antioxidant status when compared to squirrels maintained under a long photoperiod (16L:8D; equivalent to summer days). Our results underline the impact of seasonality, photoperiod, and melatonin in maintaining an intrinsic redox-immune homeostasis which helps the animal to withstand environmental stresses.

Specific prostaglandins are produced in the migratory cells and the surrounding substrate to promote Drosophila border cell migration

A key regulator of collective cell migration is prostaglandin (PG) signaling. However, it remains largely unclear whether PGs act within the migratory cells or their microenvironment to promote migration. Here we use Drosophila border cell migration as a model to uncover the cell-specific roles of two PGs in collective migration. Prior work shows PG signaling is required for on-time migration and cluster cohesion. We find that the PGE2 synthase cPGES is required in the substrate, while the PGF2α synthase Akr1B is required in the border cells for on-time migration. Akr1B acts in both the border cells and their substrate to regulate cluster cohesion. One means by which Akr1B regulates border cell migration is by promoting integrin-based adhesions. Additionally, Akr1B limits myosin activity, and thereby cellular stiffness, in the border cells, whereas cPGES limits myosin activity in both the border cells and their substrate. Together these data reveal that two PGs, PGE2 and PGF2α, produced in different locations, play key roles in promoting border cell migration. These PGs likely have similar migratory versus microenvironment roles in other collective cell migrations.

Update on the pathological roles of prostaglandin E2 in neurodegeneration in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis

Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease characterized by selective degeneration of upper and lower motor neurons. The pathogenesis of ALS remains largely unknown; however, inflammation of the spinal cord is a focus of ALS research and an important pathogenic process in ALS. Prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) is a major lipid mediator generated by the arachidonic-acid cascade and is abundant at inflammatory sites. PGE₂ levels are increased in the postmortem spinal cords of ALS patients and in ALS model mice. Beneficial therapeutic effects have been obtained in ALS model mice using cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitors to inhibit the biosynthesis of PGE₂, but the usefulness of this inhibitor has not yet been proven in clinical trials. In this review, we present current evidence on the involvement of PGE₂ in the progression of ALS and discuss the potential of microsomal prostaglandin E synthase (mPGES) and the prostaglandin receptor E-prostanoid (EP) 2 as therapeutic targets for ALS. Signaling pathways involving prostaglandin receptors mediate toxic effects in the central nervous system. In some situations, however, the receptors mediate neuroprotective effects. Our recent studies demonstrated that levels of mPGES-1, which catalyzes the final step of PGE₂ biosynthesis, are increased at the early-symptomatic stage in the spinal cords of transgenic ALS model mice carrying the G93A variant of superoxide dismutase-1. In addition, in an experimental motor-neuron model used in studies of ALS, PGE₂ induces the production of reactive oxygen species and subsequent caspase-3-dependent cytotoxicity through activation of the EP2 receptor. Moreover, this PGE₂-induced EP2 up-regulation in motor neurons plays a role in the death of motor neurons in ALS model mice. Further understanding of the pathophysiological role of PGE₂ in neurodegeneration may provide new insights to guide the development of novel therapies for ALS.

Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 inhibition promotes shunting in arachidonic acid metabolism during inflammatory responses in vitro

Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase 1 (mPGES-1) is the key enzyme for the generation of the pro-inflammatory lipid mediator prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂), which contributes to several pathological features of many diseases. Inhibition of mPGES-1 has been shown to be a safe and effective therapeutic strategy in various pre-clinical studies. In addition to reduced PGE₂ formation, it is also suggested that the potential shunting into other protective and pro-resolving prostanoids may play an important role in resolution of inflammation. In the present study, we analysed the eicosanoid profiles in four in vitro inflammation models and compared the effects of mPGES-1 inhibition with those of cyclooxygenase-2 (Cox-2) inhibition. Our results showed a marked shift to the PGD₂ pathway under mPGES-1 inhibition in A549 cells, RAW264.7 cells and mouse bone marrow-derived macrophages (BMDMs), whereas enhanced prostacyclin production was observed in rheumatoid arthritis synovial fibroblasts (RASFs) treated with an mPGES-1 inhibitor. As expected, Cox-2 inhibition completely suppressed all prostanoids. This study suggests that the therapeutic effects of mPGES-1 inhibition may be mediated by modulation of other prostanoids in addition to PGE₂ reduction.

Cooperation between Prostaglandin E2 and Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor in Cancer Progression: A Dual Target for Cancer Therapy

It is recognized that prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is one key lipid mediator involved in chronic inflammation, and it is directly implicated in tumor development by regulating cancer cell growth and migration, apoptosis, epithelial-mesenchymal transition, angiogenesis, and immune escape. In addition, the expression of the enzymes involved in PGE2 synthesis, cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase 1 (mPGES1), positively correlates with tumor progression and aggressiveness, clearly indicating the crucial role of the entire pathway in cancer. Moreover, several lines of evidence suggest that the COX2/mPGES1/PGE2 inflammatory axis is involved in the modulation of epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) signaling to reinforce the oncogenic drive of EGFR activation. Similarly, EGFR activation promotes the induction of COX2/mPGES1 expression and PGE2 production. In this review, we describe the interplay between COX2/mPGES1/PGE2 and EGFR in cancer, and new therapeutic strategies that target this signaling pathway, to outline the importance of the modulation of the inflammatory process in cancer fighting.

Secreted metabolome of porcine blastocysts encapsulated within in vitro 3D alginate hydrogel culture systems undergoing morphological changes provides insights into specific mechanisms involved in the initiation of porcine conceptus elongation

CONTEXT

The exact mechanisms regulating the initiation of porcine conceptus elongation are not known due to the complexity of the uterine environment.

AIMS

To identify contributing factors for initiation of conceptus elongation in vitro , this study evaluated differential metabolite abundance within media following culture of blastocysts within unmodified alginate (ALG) or Arg-Gly-Asp (RGD)-modified alginate hydrogel culture systems.

METHODS

Blastocysts were harvested from pregnant gilts, encapsulated within ALG or RGD or as non-encapsulated control blastocysts (CONT), and cultured. At the termination of 96h culture, media were separated into blastocyst media groups: non-encapsulated control blastocysts (CONT); ALG and RGD blastocysts with no morphological change (ALG- and RGD-); ALG and RGD blastocysts with morphological changes (ALG+ and RGD+) and evaluated for non-targeted metabolomic profiling by liquid chromatography (LC)-mass spectrometry (MS) techniques and gas chromatography-(GC-MS).

KEY RESULTS

Analysis of variance identified 280 (LC-MS) and 1 (GC-MS) compounds that differed (P <0.05), of which 134 (LC-MS) and 1 (GC-MS) were annotated. Metabolites abundance between ALG+ vs ALG-, RGD+ vs RGD-, and RGD+ vs ALG+ were further investigated to identify potential differences in metabolic processes during the initiation of elongation.

CONCLUSIONS

This study identified changes in phospholipid, glycosphingolipid, lipid signalling, and amino acid metabolic processes as potential RGD-independent mechanisms of elongation and identified changes in lysophosphatidylcholine and sphingolipid secretions during RGD-mediated elongation.

IMPLICATIONS

These results illustrate changes in phospholipid and sphingolipid metabolic processes and secretions may act as mediators of the RGD-integrin adhesion that promotes porcine conceptus elongation.

Analgesic effects of a highly selective mPGES-1 inhibitor

The growing opioid use and overdose crisis in the US is closely related to the abuse of pain medications. Particularly for postoperative pain (POP), ~ 310 million major surgeries are performed globally per year. Most patients undergoing surgical procedures experience acute POP, and ~ 75% of those with POP report the severity as moderate, severe, or extreme. Opioid analgesics are the mainstay for POP management. It is highly desirable to develop a truly effective and safe non-opioid analgesic to treat POP and other forms of pain. Notably, microsomal prostaglandin E2 (PGE₂) synthase-1 (mPGES-1) was once proposed as a potentially promising target for a next generation of anti-inflammatory drugs based on studies in mPGES-1 knockouts. However, to the best of our knowledge, no studies have ever been reported to explore whether mPGES-1 is also a potential target for POP treatment. In this study, we demonstrate for the first time that a highly selective mPGES-1 inhibitor can effectively relieve POP as well as other forms of pain through blocking the PGE₂ overproduction. All the data have consistently demonstrated that mPGES-1 is a truly promising target for treatment of POP as well as other forms of pain.

The Link between Prostanoids and Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases are the leading cause of global deaths, and many risk factors contribute to their pathogenesis. In this context, prostanoids, which derive from arachidonic acid, have attracted attention for their involvement in cardiovascular homeostasis and inflammatory processes. Prostanoids are the target of several drugs, but it has been shown that some of them increase the risk of thrombosis. Overall, many studies have shown that prostanoids are tightly associated with cardiovascular diseases and that several polymorphisms in genes involved in their synthesis and function increase the risk of developing these pathologies. In this review, we focus on molecular mechanisms linking prostanoids to cardiovascular diseases and we provide an overview of genetic polymorphisms that increase the risk for cardiovascular disease.

The roles of COX-2 in protozoan infection

Protozoan diseases cause great harm in animal husbandry and require human-provided medical treatment. Protozoan infection can induce changes in cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression. The role played by COX-2 in the response to protozoan infection is complex. COX-2 induces and regulates inflammation by promoting the synthesis of different prostaglandins (PGs), which exhibit a variety of biological activities and participate in pathophysiological processes in the body in a variety of ways. This review explains the roles played by COX-2 in protozoan infection and analyzes the effects of COX-2-related drugs in protozoan diseases.

Microsomal Prostaglandin E Synthase-1 and -2: Emerging Targets in Non-Alcoholic Fatty Liver Disease

Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) affects a substantial proportion of the general population and is even more prevalent in obese and diabetic patients. NAFLD, and particularly the more advanced manifestation of the disease, nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), increases the risk for both liver-related and cardiovascular morbidity. The pathogenesis of NAFLD is complex and multifactorial, with many molecular pathways implicated. Emerging data suggest that microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 and -2 might participate in the development and progression of NAFLD. It also appears that targeting these enzymes might represent a novel therapeutic approach for NAFLD. In the present review, we discuss the association between microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 and -2 and NAFLD.

Synthesis and Significance of Arachidonic Acid, a Substrate for Cyclooxygenases, Lipoxygenases, and Cytochrome P450 Pathways in the Tumorigenesis of Glioblastoma Multiforme, Including a Pan-Cancer Comparative Analysis

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the most aggressive gliomas. New and more effective therapeutic approaches are being sought based on studies of the various mechanisms of GBM tumorigenesis, including the synthesis and metabolism of arachidonic acid (ARA), an omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA). PubMed, GEPIA, and the transcriptomics analysis carried out by Seifert et al. were used in writing this paper. In this paper, we discuss in detail the biosynthesis of this acid in GBM tumors, with a special focus on certain enzymes: fatty acid desaturase (FADS)1, FADS2, and elongation of long-chain fatty acids family member 5 (ELOVL5). We also discuss ARA metabolism, particularly its release from cell membrane phospholipids by phospholipase A₂ (cPLA₂, iPLA₂, and sPLA₂) and its processing by cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2), lipoxygenases (5-LOX, 12-LOX, 15-LOX-1, and 15-LOX-2), and cytochrome P450. Next, we discuss the significance of lipid mediators synthesized from ARA in GBM cancer processes, including prostaglandins (PGE₂, PGD₂, and 15-deoxy-Δ^12,14-PGJ₂ (15d-PGJ₂)), thromboxane A₂ (TxA₂), oxo-eicosatetraenoic acids, leukotrienes (LTB₄, LTC₄, LTD₄, and LTE₄), lipoxins, and many others. These lipid mediators can increase the proliferation of GBM cancer cells, cause angiogenesis, inhibit the anti-tumor response of the immune system, and be responsible for resistance to treatment.

Potent Analgesic Action of 2-acetoxy-5-(2-4 (trifluoromethyl)-phenethylamino)-benzoic Acid (Flusalazine) in Experimental Mice

PURPOSE

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) and cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 selective inhibitors are the most widely used drugs to treat pain. Conventional NSAIDs and COX-2 selective inhibitors, however, cause several side effects such as gastric damage, kidney damage, and cardiovascular problems. Our previous study showed that 2-acetoxy-5-(2-4-(trifluoromethyl)-phenethylamino)-benzoic acid ie, flusalazine (also known as ND-07), which exerts dual actions by serving both as an anti-inflammatory agent and a free radical scavenger, is an effective and safe treatment for severe inflammatory diseases in mice. The goal of the present study was to examine the potential analgesic action and safety of flusalazine in mice models of pain.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Flusalazine showed a significant analgesic effect in an acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction model. Likewise, total paw licking was reduced significantly in neurogenic (early stage) and inflammatory (late stage) pain induced by formalin in flusalazine-treated mice. In the tail immersion test, flusalazine significantly increased tail withdrawal time at 2 h after its administration. Also, the formation of paw edema in the flusalazine-treated group was significantly inhibited in a carrageenan-induced inflammatory pain model. Gastric damage was not induced by flusalazine even up to 1000 mg/kg, while aspirin and indomethacin caused critical gastric bleeding.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggest that flusalazine's safety profile and analgesic effects have high translational potential for the clinical treatment of patients experiencing pain.

Cyclooxygenase production of PGE2 promotes phagocyte control of A. fumigatus hyphal growth in larval zebrafish

Invasive aspergillosis is a common opportunistic infection, causing >50% mortality in infected immunocompromised patients. The specific molecular mechanisms of the innate immune system that prevent pathogenesis of invasive aspergillosis in immunocompetent individuals are not fully understood. Here, we used a zebrafish larva-Aspergillus infection model to identify cyclooxygenase (COX) enzyme signaling as one mechanism that promotes host survival. Larvae exposed to the pan-COX inhibitor indomethacin succumb to infection at a significantly higher rate than control larvae. COX signaling is both macrophage- and neutrophil-mediated. However, indomethacin treatment has no effect on phagocyte recruitment. Instead, COX signaling promotes phagocyte-mediated inhibition of germination and invasive hyphal growth. Increased germination and invasive hyphal growth is also observed in infected F0 crispant larvae with mutations in genes encoding for COX enzymes (ptgs2a/b). Protective COX-mediated signaling requires the receptor EP2 and exogenous prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) rescues indomethacin-induced decreased immune control of fungal growth. Collectively, we find that COX signaling activates the PGE2-EP2 pathway to increase control A. fumigatus hyphal growth by phagocytes in zebrafish larvae.

Genome-Wide Analysis Indicates a Complete Prostaglandin Pathway from Synthesis to Inactivation in Pacific White Shrimp, Litopenaeus vannamei

Prostaglandins (PGs) play many essential roles in the development, immunity, metabolism, and reproduction of animals. In vertebrates, arachidonic acid (ARA) is generally converted to prostaglandin G₂ (PGG₂) and H₂ (PGH₂) by cyclooxygenase (COX); then, various biologically active PGs are produced through different downstream prostaglandin synthases (PGSs), while PGs are inactivated by 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase (PGDH). However, there is very limited knowledge of the PG biochemical pathways in invertebrates, particularly for crustaceans. In this study, nine genes involved in the prostaglandin pathway, including a COX, seven PGSs (PGES, PGES2, PGDS1/2, PGFS, AKR1C3, and TXA2S), and a PGDH were identified based on the Pacific white shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) genome, indicating a more complete PG pathway from synthesis to inactivation in crustaceans than in insects and mollusks. The homologous genes are conserved in amino acid sequences and structural domains, similar to those of related species. The expression patterns of these genes were further analyzed in a variety of tissues and developmental processes by RNA sequencing and quantitative real-time PCR. The mRNA expression of PGES was relatively stable in various tissues, while other genes were specifically expressed in distant tissues. During embryo development to post-larvae, COX, PGDS1, GDS2, and AKR1C3 expressions increased significantly, and increasing trends were also observed on PGES, PGDS2, and AKR1C3 at the post-molting stage. During the ovarian maturation, decreasing trends were found on PGES1, PGDS2, and PGDH in the hepatopancreas, but all gene expressions remained relatively stable in ovaries. In conclusion, this study provides basic knowledge for the synthesis and inactivation pathway of PG in crustaceans, which may contribute to the understanding of their regulatory mechanism in ontogenetic development and reproduction.

Green, Black and Rooibos Tea Inhibit Prostaglandin E2 Formation in Human Monocytes by Inhibiting Expression of Enzymes in the Prostaglandin E2 Pathway

The formation of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is associated with adverse inflammatory effects. However, long-term treatment with nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) comes with risk of severe side effects. Therefore, alternative ways to inhibit PGE2 are warranted. We have investigated the effects of tea extracts and the polyphenols epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) and quercetin on PGE2 formation, determined by immunoassay, and protein expression, determined by immunoblotting, of cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2), cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and microsomal PGE synthase-1 (mPGES-1) in human monocytes. Green and black tea extracts, and with a lower potency, Rooibos tea extract, inhibited lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and calcium ionophore-induced PGE2 formation. In addition, all tea extracts inhibited the LPS-induced expression of mPGES-1, and the green and black tea extracts also inhibited, to a lesser extent, COX-2 expression. The tea extracts only marginally reduced cPLA2 expression and had no effect on COX-1 expression. EGCG, present in green and black tea, and quercetin, present in all three teas, also inhibited PGE2 formation and expression of mPGES-1, COX-2 and cPLA2. Cell-based and cell-free assays were also performed to evaluate direct effects on the enzymatic activity of COX and PGE synthases. Mainly, the cell-free assay demonstrated partial inhibition by the tea extracts and polyphenols. However, the inhibition required higher doses compared to the effects demonstrated on protein expression. In conclusion, green and black tea, and to a lesser extent Rooibos tea, are potent inhibitors of PGE2 formation in human monocytes, and mediate their effects by inhibiting the expression of the enzymes responsible for PGE2 formation, especially mPGES-1.

Facilitation of colonic T cell immune responses is associated with an exacerbation of dextran sodium sulfate-induced colitis in mice lacking microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1

Background

Microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 (mPGES-1) is a key enzyme that acts downstream of cyclooxygenase and plays a major role in inflammation by converting prostaglandin (PG) H₂ to PGE₂. The present study investigated the effect of genetic deletion of mPGES-1 on the development of immunologic responses to experimental colitis induced by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS), a well-established model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD).

Methods

Colitis was induced in mice lacking mPGES-1 (mPGES-1^−/− mice) and wild-type (WT) mice by administering DSS for 7 days. Colitis was assessed by body weight loss, diarrhea, fecal bleeding, and histological features. The colonic expression of mPGES-1 was determined by real-time PCR, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. The impact of mPGES-1 deficiency on T cell immunity was determined by flow cytometry and T cell depletion in vivo.

Results

After administration of DSS, mPGES-1^−/− mice exhibited more severe weight loss, diarrhea, and fecal bleeding than WT mice. Histological analysis further showed significant exacerbation of colonic inflammation in mPGES-1^−/− mice. In WT mice, the colonic expression of mPGES-1 was highly induced on both mRNA and protein levels and colonic PGE₂ increased significantly after DSS administration. Additionally, mPGES-1 protein was localized in the colonic mucosal epithelium and infiltrated inflammatory cells in underlying connective tissues and the lamina propria. The abnormalities consistent with colitis in mPGES-1^−/− mice were associated with higher expression of colonic T-helper (Th)17 and Th1 cytokines, including interleukin 17A and interferon-γ. Furthermore, lack of mPGES-1 increased the numbers of Th17 and Th1 cells in the lamina propria mononuclear cells within the colon, even though the number of suppressive regulatory T cells also increased. CD4⁺ T cell depletion effectively reduced symptoms of colitis as well as colonic expression of Th17 and Th1 cytokines in mPGES-1^−/− mice, suggesting the requirement of CD4⁺ T cells in the exacerbation of DSS-induced colitis under mPGES-1 deficiency.

Conclusions

These results demonstrate that mPGES-1 is the main enzyme responsible for colonic PGE₂ production and deficiency of mPGES-1 facilitates the development of colitis by affecting the development of colonic T cell–mediated immunity. mPGES-1 might therefore impact both the intestinal inflammation and T cell–mediated immunity associated with IBD.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41232-021-00188-1.

Microsomal prostaglandin E2 synthase-1 and its inhibitors: Molecular mechanisms and therapeutic significance

Inflammation is closely linked to the abnormal phospholipid metabolism chain of cyclooxygenase-2/microsomal prostaglandin E₂ synthase-1/prostaglandin E₂ (COX-2/mPGES-1/PGE₂). In clinical practice, non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) as upstream COX-2 enzyme activity inhibitors are widely used to block COX-2 cascade to relieve inflammatory response. However, NSAIDs could also cause cardiovascular and gastrointestinal side effects due to its inhibition on other prostaglandins generation. To avoid this, targeting downstream mPGES-1 instead of upstream COX is preferable to selectively block overexpressed PGE₂ in inflammatory diseases. Some mPGES-1 inhibitor candidates including synthetic compounds, natural products and existing anti-inflammatory drugs have been proved to be effective in in vitro experiments. After 20 years of in-depth research on mPGES-1 and its inhibitors, ISC 27864 have completed phase II clinical trial. In this review, we intend to summarize mPGES-1 inhibitors focused on their inhibitory specificity with perspectives for future drug development.

Auranofin: Past to Present, and repurposing

Auranofin (AF), a gold compound, has been used to treat rheumatoid arthritis (RA) for more than 40 years; however, its mechanism of action remains unknown. We revealed that AF inhibited the induction of proinflammatory proteins and their mRNAs by the inflammatory stimulants, cyclooxygenase-2 and inducible nitric oxide synthase, and their upstream regulator, NF-κB. AF also activated the proteins peroxyredoxin-1, Kelch-like ECH-associated protein 1, and NF-E2-related factor 2, and inhibited thioredoxin reductase, all of which are involved in oxidative or electrophilic stress under physiological conditions. Although the cell membrane was previously considered to be permeable to AF because of its hydrophobicity, the mechanisms responsible for transporting AF into and out of cells as well as its effects on the uptake and excretion of other drugs have not yet been elucidated. Antibodies for cytokines have recently been employed in the treatment of RA, which has had an impact on the use of AF. Trials to repurpose AF as a risk-controlled agent to treat cancers or infectious diseases, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2/coronavirus disease 2019, are ongoing. Novel gold compounds are also under development as anti-cancer and anti-infection agents.

Regulation of PGE2 Pathway During Cerebral Ischemia Reperfusion Injury in Rat

Stroke is an acute central nervous system disease with high morbidity and mortality rate. Cerebral ischemia reperfusion (I/R) injury is easily induced during the development or treatment of stroke and subsequently leads to more serious brain damage. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is one of the most important inflammatory mediators in the brain and contributes to both physiological and pathophysiological functions. It may be upregulated and subsequently plays a key role in cerebral ischemia reperfusion injury. The synthesis and degradation of PGE2 is an extremely complex process, with multiple key stages and molecules. However, there are few comprehensive and systematic studies conducted to investigate the synthesis and degradation of PGE2 during cerebral I/R injury, which is what we want to demonstrate. In this study, qRT-PCR and immunoblotting demonstrated that the key enzymes in PGE2 synthesis, including COX-1, COX-2, mPGES-1 and mPGES-2, were upregulated during cerebral I/R injury, but 15-PGDH, the main PGE2 degradation enzyme, was downregulated. In addition, two of PGE2 receptors, EP3 and EP4, were also increased. Meanwhile, immunohistochemistry demonstrated the localization of these molecules in ischemic areas, including cortex, striatum and hippocampus, and reflected their expression patterns in different regions. Combining the results of PCR, Western blotting and immunohistochemistry, we can determine where the increase or decrease of these molecules occurs. Overall, these results further indicate a possible pathway that mediates enhanced production of PGE2, and thus that may impact production of inflammatory cytokines including IL-1β and TNF-α during cerebral I/R injury.

Synthesis and Biological Evaluation of Salicylic Acid Analogues of Celecoxib as a New Class of Selective Cyclooxygenase-1 Inhibitor

A series of salicylic acid analogues of celecoxib where the phenylsulfonamide moiety in the structure of celecoxib is replaced by salicylic acid moiety was synthesized and tested for in vitro cyclooxygenase (COX)-1 and COX-2 enzyme inhibition. Among the series, 5-substituted-2-hydroxy-benzoic acid analogues (7a-7h) generally showed better inhibitory activities on both enzymes than 4-substituted-2-hydroxy-benzoic acid analogues (12a-12h). In particular, the chloro analogue 7f which had the highest inhibitory effect (IC₅₀ = 0.0057 µM) to COX-1 with excellent COX-1 selectivity (SI = 768) can be classified as a new potent and selective COX-1 inhibitor. The high inhibitory potency of 7f was rationalized through the docking simulation of this analogue in the active site of COX-1 enzyme.

The inhibitory effects of Orengedokuto on inducible PGE2 production in BV-2 microglial cells

Background and aim

Reactive microglia has been associated with neuroinflammation caused by the production of proinflammatory molecules such as cytokines, nitric oxide, and prostaglandins. The overexpression of these molecules may provoke neuronal damage that can cause neurodegenerative diseases. A traditional herbal medicine, Orengedokuto (OGT), has been widely used for treating inflammation-related diseases. However, how it influences neuroinflammation remains poorly understood.

Experimental procedure

This study investigated the effects of OGT on inflammatory molecule induction in BV-2 microglial cells using real-time RT-PCR and ELISA. An in vivo confirmation of these effects was then performed in mice.

Results and conclusion

OGT showed dose-dependent inhibition of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) production in BV-2 cells stimulated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). To elucidate the mechanism of PGE2 inhibition, we examined cyclooxygenases (COXs) and found that OGT did not suppress COX-1 expression or inhibit LPS-induced COX-2 upregulation at either the transcriptional or translational levels. In addition, OGT did not inhibit COX enzyme activities within the concentration that inhibited PGE2 production, suggesting that the effect of OGT is COX-independent. The inhibitory effects of OGT on PGE2 production in BV-2 cells were experimentally replicated in primary cultured astrocytes and mice brains. OGT can be useful in the treatment of neuroinflammatory diseases by modulating PGE2 expression.

P23 Acts as Functional RBP in the Macrophage Inflammation Response

Macrophages exert the primary cellular immune response. Pathogen components like bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) stimulate macrophage migration, phagocytotic activity and cytokine expression. Previously, we identified the poly(A)⁺ RNA interactome of RAW 264.7 macrophages. Of the 402 RNA-binding proteins (RBPs), 32 were classified as unique in macrophages, including nineteen not reported to interact with nucleic acids before. Remarkably, P23 a HSP90 co-chaperone, also known as cytosolic prostaglandin E2 synthase (PTGES3), exhibited differential poly(A)⁺ RNA binding in untreated and LPS-induced macrophages. To identify mRNAs bound by P23 and to elucidate potential regulatory RBP functions in macrophages, we immunoprecipitated P23 from cytoplasmic extracts of cross-linked untreated and LPS-induced cells. RNAseq revealed that enrichment of 44 mRNAs was reduced in response to LPS. Kif15 mRNA, which encodes kinesin family member 15 (KIF15), a motor protein implicated in cytoskeletal reorganization and cell mobility was selected for further analysis. Noteworthy, phagocytic activity of LPS-induced macrophages was enhanced by P23 depletion. Specifically, in untreated RAW 264.7 macrophages, decreased P23 results in Kif15 mRNA destabilization, diminished KIF15 expression and accelerated macrophage migration. We show that the unexpected RBP function of P23 contributes to the regulation of macrophage phagocytotic activity and migration.

Intersecting Mechanisms of Hypoxia and Prostaglandin E2-Mediated Inflammation in the Comparative Biology of Oral Squamous Cell Carcinoma

The importance of inflammation in the pathogenesis of cancer was first proposed by Rudolph Virchow over 150 years ago, and our understanding of its significance has grown over decades of biomedical research. The arachidonic acid pathway of inflammation, including cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, PGE2 synthase enzymes, prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and PGE2 receptors has been extensively studied and has been associated with different diseases and different types of cancers, including oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC). In addition to inflammation in the tumour microenvironment, low oxygen levels (hypoxia) within tumours have also been shown to contribute to tumour progression. Understandably, most of our OSCC knowledge comes from study of this aggressive cancer in human patients and in experimental rodent models. However, domestic animals develop OSCC spontaneously and this is an important, and difficult to treat, form of cancer in veterinary medicine. The primary goal of this review article is to explore the available evidence regarding interaction between hypoxia and the arachidonic acid pathway of inflammation during malignant behaviour of OSCC. Overlapping mechanisms in hypoxia and inflammation can contribute to tumour growth, angiogenesis, and, importantly, resistance to therapy. The benefits and controversies of anti-inflammatory and anti-angiogenic therapies for human and animal OSCC patients will be discussed, including conventional pharmaceutical agents as well as natural products.

Up-regulation of cytosolic prostaglandin E synthase in fetal-membrane and amniotic prostaglandin E2 accumulation in labor

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is known to have important roles in labor, but the detailed mechanism underlying the spontaneous human labor remains unknown. Here, we examined the involvement of prostaglandin biosynthetic enzymes and transporter in the accumulation of PGE2 in amniotic fluid in human labor. PGE2 and its metabolites were abundant in amniotic fluid in deliveries at term in labor (TLB), but not at term not in labor (TNL). In fetal-membrane Transwell assays, levels of PGE2 production in both maternal and fetal compartments were significantly higher in the TLB group than the TNL group. In fetal-membrane, the mRNA level of PTGES3, which encodes cytosolic prostaglandin E synthase (cPGES), was significantly higher in TLB than in TNL, but the mRNA levels of the other PGE2-synthase genes were not affected by labor. Moreover, the mRNA level of PTGS2, which encodes cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) in the amnion was significantly higher in TLB than in TNL. Western blot analyses revealed that the levels of COX-1 and COX-2 were comparable between the two groups, however, the level of cPGES was relatively higher in TLB than in TNL. COXs, cPGES, and prostaglandin transporter (SLCO2A1) proteins were all expressed in both chorionic trophoblasts and amniotic epithelium. These findings suggest that COXs, cPGES and SLCO2A1 contribute to PGE2 production from fetal-membrane in labor.

Expression of Enzymes Associated with Prostaglandin Synthesis in Equine Conceptuses

Simple Summary

The mobile preimplantative phase of equine gestation, taking place between day 9 and 16 after ovulation, is characterized by peristaltic contractions of the uterus caused by secretion of prostaglandins by the spheric equine conceptus. This mobility is necessary for maternal recognition of pregnancy in equids, taking place around day 14 after ovulation. The presented study investigated the spatial and temporal abundance of prostaglandin synthesis enzymes of the equine conceptus, elucidating a basal and an inducible system for prostaglandin E2. Prostaglandin F2α synthesis is restricted to the “periembryonic”pole area and relies on enzymatic conversion of prostaglandin E2. This scenario led to a model able to explain the embryonic forward motion driven by the peristaltic contractions of the uterus. In vitro incubation of primary trophoblast cell cultures with oxytocin showed no influence of this hormone on prostaglandin synthesis.

Abstract

In the horse, mobility of the conceptus is required for maternal recognition of pregnancy depending on secretion of prostaglandins by the conceptus. The aim of this study was to determine the expression and localization of key enzymes of the different pathways leading to synthesis of prostaglandin E2 and F2α in the equine conceptus during the mobility phase. Enzyme expression was analyzed via quantitative RT-PCR in total RNA samples of equine conceptuses collected on days 10 (n = 5), 12 (n = 12), 14 (n = 5) and 16 (n = 7) from healthy mares. Relative abundance of cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 mRNA was higher (p < 0.05) than of COX-1 irrespective of conceptus age and for phospholipase A2 on day 16 in comparison to all other days (p < 0.01). Abundance of mRNA of cytosolic and microsomal prostaglandin E synthase (PGES) and of carbonyl reductase (CBR) 1 was not influenced by conceptus age. Immunohistochemically, COX-1, COX-2, as well as cytosolic and microsomal PGES were present in both the ectodermal and endodermal layer of the yolk sac wall. CBR-1 was restricted to periembryonic disc area. The localisation of the key enzymes explains the mechanism of embryo mobility. In vitro incubation of primary trophoblast cell cultures with oxytocin had no effect on key enzyme synthesis.

A new trick for an old dog? Myocardial-specific roles for prostaglandins as mediators of ischemic injury and repair

The small lipid-derived paracrine signaling molecules known as prostaglandins have been recognized for their ability to modulate many facets of cardiovascular physiology since their initial discovery more than 85 years ago. Although the role of prostaglandins in the vasculature has gained significant attention across time, a handful of historical studies have also directly implicated the cardiomyocyte in both prostaglandin synthesis and release. Recently, our understanding of how prostaglandin receptor modulation impacts and contributes to myocardial structure and function has gained attention while leaving most other components of myocardial prostaglandin metabolism and signaling unexplored. This mini-review highlights both the key historical studies that underpin modern prostaglandin research in the heart, while concurrently presenting the latest findings related to how prostaglandin metabolism and signaling impact myocardial injury and repair.

Arachidonic Acid Derivatives and Neuroinflammation

Neuroinflammation is characterized by dysregulated inflammatory responses localized within the brain and spinal cord. Neuroinflammation plays a pivotal role in the onset of several neurodegenerative disorders and is considered a typical feature of these disorders. Microglia perform primary immune surveillance and macrophage-like activities within the central nervous system. Activated microglia are predominant players in the central nervous system response to damage related to stroke, trauma, and infection. Moreover, microglial activation per se leads to a proinflammatory response and oxidative stress. During the release of cytokines and chemokines, cyclooxygenases and phospholipase A2 are stimulated. Elevated levels of these compounds play a significant role in immune cell recruitment into the brain. Cyclic phospholipase A2 plays a fundamental role in the production of prostaglandins by releasing arachidonic acid. In turn, arachidonic acid is biotransformed through different routes into several mediators that are endowed with pivotal roles in the regulation of inflammatory processes. Some experimental models of neuroinflammation exhibit an increase in cyclic phospholipase A2, leukotrienes, and prostaglandins such as prostaglandin E2, prostaglandin D2, or prostacyclin. However, findings on the role of the prostacyclin receptors have revealed that their signalling suppresses Th2-mediated inflammatory responses. In addition, other in vitro evidence suggests that prostaglandin E2 may inhibit the production of some inflammatory cytokines, attenuating inflammatory events such as mast cell degranulation or inflammatory leukotriene production. Based on these conflicting experimental data, the role of arachidonic acid derivatives in neuroinflammation remains a challenging issue.

PGE2 vs PGF2α in human parturition

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) and F2α (PGF2α) are the two most prominent prostanoids in parturition. They are involved in cervical ripening, membrane rupture, myometrial contraction and inflammation in gestational tissues. Because multiple receptor subtypes for PGE2 and PGF2α exist, coupled with diverse signaling pathways, the effects of PGE2 and PGF2α depend largely on the spatial and temporal expression of these receptors in intrauterine tissues. It appears that PGE2 and PGF2α play different roles in parturition. PGE2 is probably more important for labor onset, while PGF2α may play a more important role in labor accomplishment, which may be attributed to the differential effects of PGE2 and PGF2α in gestational tissues. PGE2 is more powerful than PGF2α in the induction of cervical ripening. In terms of myometrial contraction, PGE2 produces a biphasic effect with an initial contraction and a following relaxation, while PGF2α consistently stimulates myometrial contraction. In the fetal membranes, both PGE2 and PGF2α appear to be involved in the process of membrane rupture. In addition, PGE2 and PGF2α may also participate in the inflammatory process of intrauterine tissues at parturition by stimulating not only neutrophil influx and cytokine production but also cyclooxygenase-2 expression thereby intensifying their own production. This review summarizes the differential roles of PGE2 and PGF2α in parturition with respect to their production and expression of receptor subtypes in gestational tissues. Dissecting the specific mechanisms underlying the effects of PGE2 and PGF2α in parturition may assist in developing specific therapeutic targets for preterm and post-term birth.

Eicosanoids in Skin Wound Healing

Wound healing is an important process in the human body to protect against external threats. A dysregulation at any stage of the wound healing process may result in the development of various intractable ulcers or excessive scar formation. Numerous factors such as growth factors, cytokines, and chemokines are involved in this process and play vital roles in tissue repair. Moreover, recent studies have demonstrated that lipid mediators derived from membrane fatty acids are also involved in the process of wound healing. Among these lipid mediators, we focus on eicosanoids such as prostaglandins, thromboxane, leukotrienes, and specialized pro-resolving mediators, which are produced during wound healing processes and play versatile roles in the process. This review article highlights the roles of eicosanoids on skin wound healing, especially focusing on the biosynthetic pathways and biological functions, i.e., inflammation, proliferation, migration, angiogenesis, remodeling, and scarring.

EP4 receptor as a novel promising therapeutic target in colon cancer

The most prevalent malignancy that can occur in the gastrointestinal tract is colon cancer. The current treatment options for colon cancer patients include chemotherapy, surgery, radiotherapy, immunotherapy, and targeted therapy. Although the chance of curing the disease in the early stages is high, there is no cure for almost all patients with advanced and metastatic disease. It has been found that over-activation of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), followed by the production of prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) in patients with colon cancer are significantly increased. The tumorigenic function of COX-2 is mainly due to its role in the production of PGE2. PGE2, as a main generated prostanoid, has an essential role in growth and survival of colon cancer cell's. PGE2 exerts various effects in colon cancer cells including enhanced expansion, angiogenesis, survival, invasion, and migration. The signaling of PGE2 via the EP4 receptor has been shown to induce colon tumorigenesis. Moreover, the expression levels of the EP4 receptor significantly affect tumor growth and development. Overexpression of EP4 by various mechanisms increases survival and tumor vasculature in colon cancer cells. It seems that the pathway starting with COX2, continuing with PGE2, and ending with EP4 can promote the spread and growth of colon cancer. Therefore, targeting the COX-2/PGE2/EP4 axis can be considered as a worthy therapeutic approach to treat colon cancer. In this review, we have examined the role and different mechanisms that the EP4 receptor is involved in the development of colon cancer.

Localization of prostaglandin E2 synthases and E-prostanoid receptors in the spinal cord in a rat model of neuropathic pain

Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is a lipid mediator which plays a role in the generation of inflammatory and neuropathic pain. In the peripheral nervous system, PGE2 sensitizes nociceptive afferent neurons through E-prostanoid (EP) receptors. In the central nervous system, PGE2 modulates pain sensitivity and contributes to the development of neuropathic pain. However, the distribution of PGE2 and EP receptors in the spinal cord remains unclear. In the present study, we examined the expression of PGE2 synthases (microsomal PGE synthase [mPGES]-1, mPGES-2, and cytosolic PGE synthase [cPGES]) and EP receptors (EP1-4) in a rat model of neuropathic pain. We identified that mPGES-1 mRNA was upregulated in spinal endothelial cells after nerve injury and exhibited co-localization with cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2). We detected that mPGES-2 mRNA and cPGES mRNA were expressed in spinal neurons and noted that their expression level was not affected by nerve injury. With respect to EP receptors, EP2 mRNA and EP4 mRNA were expressed in spinal neurons in the dorsal horn. EP3 mRNA was expressed in motor neurons, whereas EP1 mRNA was not detected in the spinal cord. Intrathecal injection of tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα) upregulated mPGES-1 mRNA in blood vessels in the spinal cord. Intrathecal injection of a TNFα-neutralizing antibody partially inhibited the upregulation of mPGES-1 mRNA after nerve injury. These results indicate that PGE2 is synthesized by COX-2/mPGES-1 in spinal endothelial cells after nerve injury. These results suggest that in neuropathic pain condition, endothelial cell-derived PGE2 may act on EP2 and EP4 receptors on spinal neurons and modulate pain sensitivity.

Insights into the mechanism of inhibition of phospholipase A2 by resveratrol: An extensive molecular dynamics simulation and binding free energy calculation

Phospholipase A2 (PLA2) is one of the enzymes involved in the development of cardiovascular diseases, vascular inflammation, risk of heart attacks, and strokes. This enzyme is responsible for catalyzing the hydrolytic cleavage of ester bonds of phospholipids in the biological pathway of inflammation. To prevent the undesired hydrolysis of phospholipids, the catalytic activity of PLA2 needs to be blocked. Resveratrol is a plant-derived polyphenol inhibitor, proven to have anti-inflammatory properties. However, there is still substantial ambiguity about its inhibitory function. The present study uncovers a detailed molecular mechanism behind the resveratrol action in inhibition of PLA2, by applying and comparing two 200-ns molecular dynamics simulations. The results of structural analyses revealed that the binding of resveratrol to PLA2 reduces the content of β-sheets and increases a 5-helix to PLA2 structure, producing more folding and stability in protein. In the active site, the resveratrol is placed between the N-terminal α-helix and the newly formed 5-helix through the hydrophobic interactions with ILE19 and LEU3 residues, as well as the hydrogen bond interactions. These interactions play the role of a network at the entrance of the enzyme active site and prevent the penetration of water molecules into the PLA2 cavity. A high occupancy hydrogen bonding has been identified between SER23 of the protein and hydroxyl group of resveratrol. Furthermore, the estimation of binding free energy verified the binding affinity of resveratrol is thermodynamically sufficient to be stably bounded to PLA2. It also proved that the van der Waals interactions, particularly hydrophobic interactions, have the most significant role in PLA2-resveratrol binding and stability. Overall, our results provide useful information on the stepwise mechanism of the inhibition of PLA2 enzyme by resveratrol, as a target for improving the pharmacological applications.

The enzymology of the human prostanoid pathway

Prostanoids are short-lived autocrine and paracrine signaling molecules involved in a wide range of biological functions. They have been shown to be intimately involved in many different disease states when their regulation becomes dysfunctional. In order to fully understand the progression of any disease state or the biological functions of the well state, a complete evaluation of the genomics, proteomics, and metabolomics of the system is necessary. This review is focused on the enzymology for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of the prostanoids (prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes). In particular, the isolation and purification of the enzymes, their enzymatic parameters and catalytic mechanisms are presented.

Prostaglandin E2 affects in vitro maturation of bovine oocytes

The role of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in the successful resumption of oocyte meiosis and cumulus expansion has been well-documented. However, there remains very little information available on the influence of PGE₂ on other processes that occur during oocyte maturation. In this study, we supplemented a maturation medium with PGE₂ and monitored oocyte quality markers, glucose metabolism, mitochondrial status, oxidative stress, and apoptosis in the cumulus-oocyte complexes (COCs), using a well-established in vitro model of embryo production in cattle. We found that this increased availability of PGE₂ during maturation led to an increase in the expression of genes associated with oocyte competence and improved the quality of blastocysts produced. Prostaglandin E₂ also appeared to stimulate glucose uptake and lactate production in the COCs, both influencing the expression of enzymes involved in glycolysis and the hexosamine biosynthetic pathway. We found that PGE₂ reduced intracellular reactive oxygen species levels, and simultaneously increased glutathione concentration and stimulated antioxidant gene expression in the oocyte. These results indicate that PGE₂ has an important role in the protection of oocytes against oxidative stress. Mitochondrial membrane potential was also improved in PGE₂-treated oocytes, and there was a reduction in the occurrence of apoptosis in the COCs. Promotion of an anti-apoptotic balance in transcription of genes involved in apoptosis was present in both oocytes and the cumulus cells. In summary, PGE₂ could represent a novel autocrine/paracrine player in the mechanisms that can facilitate successful oocyte maturation and oocyte survival in the cow.

Cyclooxygenase 2-Regulated Genes an Alternative Avenue to the Development of New Therapeutic Drugs for Colorectal Cancer

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is one of the most common and recurrent types of cancer, with high mortality rates. Several clinical trials and meta-analyses have determined that the use of pharmacological inhibitors of cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2), the enzyme that catalyses the rate-limiting step in the synthesis of prostaglandins (PG) from arachidonic acid, can reduce the incidence of CRC as well as the risk of recurrence of this disease, when used together with commonly used chemotherapeutic agents. These observations suggest that inhibition of COX-2 may be useful in the treatment of CRC, although the current drugs targeting COX-2 are not widely used since they increase the risk of health complications. To overcome this difficulty, a possibility is to identify genes regulated by COX-2 activity that could give an advantage to the cells to form tumors and/or metastasize. The modulation of those genes as effectors of COX-2 may cancel the beneficial effects of COX-2 in tumor transformation and metastasis. A review of the available databases and literature and our own data have identified some interesting molecules induced by prostaglandins or COX-2 that have been also described to play a role in colon cancer, being thus potential pharmacological targets in colon cancer. Among those mPGES-1, DUSP4, and 10, Programmed cell death 4, Trop2, and many from the TGFβ and p53 pathways have been identified as genes upregulated in response to COX-2 overexpression or PGs in colon carcinoma lines and overexpressed in colon tumor tissue. Here, we review the available evidence of the potential roles of those molecules in colon cancer in the context of PG/COX signaling pathways that could be critical mediators of some of the tumor growth and metastasis advantage induced by COX-2. At the end, this may allow defining new therapeutic targets/drugs against CRC that could act specifically against tumor cells and would be effective in the prevention and treatment of CRC, lacking the unwanted side effects of COX-2 pharmacological inhibitors, providing alternative approaches in colon cancer.

Red-kerneled rice proanthocyanidin inhibits arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase and decreases psoriasis-like skin inflammation

5-lipoxygenase is a key enzyme in the synthesis of leukotrienes from arachidonic acid. The produced leukotrienes are involved in inflammatory diseases including psoriasis, asthma, and atherosclerosis. A suitable 5-lipoxygenase inhibitor might be useful for preventing and improving the symptoms of leukotriene-related inflammatory diseases. Here, we investigate the mechanism underlying the anti-inflammatory effect of a proanthocyanidin found in red-kerneled rice. Red-kerneled rice proanthocyanidin exhibited potent mixed noncompetitive inhibition of human and rat 5-lipoxygenases, with an IC₅₀ values of 15.1 μM against human enzyme, and 7.0 μM against rat enzyme, respectively. This compound decreased leukotriene B₄ production in rat basophilic leukemia-2H3 cells. In imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like mouse skin, topical application of the proanthocyanidin suppressed hyperplasia, decreased inflammatory cell infiltration, and down-regulated expression of the psoriasis-associated genes Il17a, Il22, S100a9, and Krt1. Lipid metabolome analysis by electrospray ionization mass spectrometry showed that red-kerneled rice proanthocyanidin treatment of psoriasis-like mouse skin dose-dependently decreased the production of leukotriene B₄ but no other arachidonate metabolites. Red-kerneled rice proanthocyanidin inhibits 5-lipoxygenase, resulting in a decrease in leukotriene B₄ production and psoriasis-like mouse skin inflammation. These results suggest that this proanthocyanidin may be therapeutically effective for treating leukotriene-related diseases.

Pressure Cycling Technology Assisted Mass Spectrometric Quantification of Gingival Tissue Reveals Proteome Dynamics during the Initiation and Progression of Inflammatory Periodontal Disease

Understanding the progression of periodontal tissue destruction is at the forefront of periodontal research. The authors aimed to capture the dynamics of gingival tissue proteome during the initiation and progression of experimental (ligature-induced) periodontitis in mice. Pressure cycling technology (PCT), a recently developed platform that uses ultra-high pressure to disrupt tissues, is utilized to achieve efficient and reproducible protein extraction from ultra-small amounts of gingival tissues in combination with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MS). The MS data are processed using Progenesis QI and the regulated proteins are subjected to METACORE, STRING, and WebGestalt for functional enrichment analysis. A total of 1614 proteins with ≥2 peptides are quantified with an estimated protein false discovery rate of 0.06%. Unsupervised clustering analysis shows that the gingival tissue protein abundance is mainly dependent on the periodontitis progression stage. Gene ontology enrichment analysis reveals an overrepresentation in innate immune regulation (e.g., neutrophil-mediated immunity and antimicrobial peptides), signal transduction (e.g., integrin signaling), and homeostasis processes (e.g., platelet activation and aggregation). In conclusion, a PCT-assisted label-free quantitative proteomics workflow that allowed cataloging the deepest gingival tissue proteome on a rapid timescale and provided novel mechanistic insights into host perturbation during periodontitis progression is applied.