Crystal structure of a deacylation-defective mutant of penicillin-binding protein 5 at 2.3-A resolution

Structural Insights into Substrate Binding and Antibiotic Inhibition of Enterobacterial Penicillin-Binding Protein 6

Shigella sonnei remains the second most common cause of shigellosis in young children and is now increasingly dominant across developing countries. The global emergence of drug resistance has become a main burden in the treatment of S. sonnei infections and β-lactam antibiotics, such as pivmecillinam and ceftriaxone, are recommended to be used as second-line treatment. They work by inhibiting the biosynthesis of the peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell walls, in which the final transpeptidation step is facilitated by penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs). In this study, using protein homology modelling, we modelled the structure of PBP6 from S. sonnei and comprehensively examined the molecular interactions between PBP6 and its pentapeptide substrate and two antibiotic inhibitors. The docked complex of S. sonnei PBP6 with pentapeptides showed that the substrate bound to the active site groove of the DD-carboxypeptidase domain, via hydrogen bonding interactions with the residues S79, V80, Q101, G144, D146 and R240, in close proximity to the catalytic nucleophile S36 for the nucleophilic attack. Two residues, R240 and T208, were found to be important in ligand recognition and binding, where they formed strong hydrogen bonds with the substrate and β-lactams, respectively. Our results provide valuable information on the molecular interactions essential for ligand recognition and catalysis by PBP6. Understanding these interactions will be helpful in the development of effective drugs to treat S. sonnei infections.

High-Throughput Crystallography Reveals Boron-Containing Inhibitors of a Penicillin-Binding Protein with Di- and Tricovalent Binding Modes

The effectiveness of β-lactam antibiotics is increasingly compromised by β-lactamases. Boron-containing inhibitors are potent serine-β-lactamase inhibitors, but the interactions of boron-based compounds with the penicillin-binding protein (PBP) β-lactam targets have not been extensively studied. We used high-throughput X-ray crystallography to explore reactions of a boron-containing fragment set with the Pseudomonas aeruginosa PBP3 (PaPBP3). Multiple crystal structures reveal that boronic acids react with PBPs to give tricovalently linked complexes bonded to Ser294, Ser349, and Lys484 of PaPBP3; benzoxaboroles react with PaPBP3 via reaction with two nucleophilic serines (Ser294 and Ser349) to give dicovalently linked complexes; and vaborbactam reacts to give a monocovalently linked complex. Modifications of the benzoxaborole scaffold resulted in a moderately potent inhibition of PaPBP3, though no antibacterial activity was observed. Overall, the results further evidence the potential for the development of new classes of boron-based antibiotics, which are not compromised by β-lactamase-driven resistance.

The D-alanyl-d-alanine carboxypeptidase enzyme is essential for virulence in the Schu S4 strain of Francisella tularensis and a dacD mutant is able to provide protection against a pneumonic challenge

Low molecular mass penicillin binding proteins (LMM PBP) are bacterial enzymes involved in the final steps of peptidoglycan biosynthesis. In Escherichia coli, most LMM PBP exhibit dd-carboxypeptidase activity, are not essential for growth in routine laboratory media, and contributions to virulent phenotypes remain largely unknown. The Francisella tularensis Schu S4 genome harbors the dacD gene (FTT_1029), which encodes a LMM PBP with homology to PBP6b of E. coli. Disruption of this locus in the fully virulent Schu S4 strain resulted in a mutant that could not grow in Chamberlain's Defined Medium and exhibited severe morphological defects. Further characterization studies demonstrated that the growth defects of the dacD mutant were pH-dependent, and could be partially restored by growth at neutral pH or fully restored by genetic complementation. Infection of murine macrophage-like cells showed that the Schu S4 dacD mutant is capable of intracellular replication. However, this mutant was attenuated in BALB/c mice following intranasal challenge (LD₅₀ = 603 CFU) as compared to mice challenged with the parent (LD₅₀ = 1 CFU) or complemented strain (LD₅₀ = 1 CFU). Additionally, mice that survived infection with the dacD mutant showed significant protection against subsequent challenge with the parent strain. Collectively, these results indicate that the DacD protein of F. tularensis is essential for growth in low pH environments and virulence in vivo. These results also suggest that a PBP mutant could serve as the basis of a novel, live attenuated vaccine strain.

Cell Wall Hydrolases in Bacteria: Insight on the Diversity of Cell Wall Amidases, Glycosidases and Peptidases Toward Peptidoglycan

The cell wall (CW) of bacteria is an intricate arrangement of macromolecules, at least constituted of peptidoglycan (PG) but also of (lipo)teichoic acids, various polysaccharides, polyglutamate and/or proteins. During bacterial growth and division, there is a constant balance between CW degradation and biosynthesis. The CW is remodeled by bacterial hydrolases, whose activities are carefully regulated to maintain cell integrity or lead to bacterial death. Each cell wall hydrolase (CWH) has a specific role regarding the PG: (i) cell wall amidase (CWA) cleaves the amide bond between N-acetylmuramic acid and L-alanine residue at the N-terminal of the stem peptide, (ii) cell wall glycosidase (CWG) catalyses the hydrolysis of the glycosidic linkages, whereas (iii) cell wall peptidase (CWP) cleaves amide bonds between amino acids within the PG chain. After an exhaustive overview of all known conserved catalytic domains responsible for CWA, CWG, and CWP activities, this review stresses that the CWHs frequently display a modular architecture combining multiple and/or different catalytic domains, including some lytic transglycosylases as well as CW binding domains. From there, direct physiological and collateral roles of CWHs in bacterial cells are further discussed.

Crystal Structures of Penicillin-Binding Protein D2 from Listeria monocytogenes and Structural Basis for Antibiotic Specificity

β-Lactam antibiotics that inhibit penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) have been widely used in the treatment of bacterial infections. However, the molecular basis underlying the different inhibitory potencies of β-lactams against specific PBPs is not fully understood. Here, we present the crystal structures of penicillin-binding protein D2 (PBPD2) from Listeria monocytogenes, a Gram-positive foodborne bacterial pathogen that causes listeriosis in humans. The acylated structures in complex with four antibiotics (penicillin G, ampicillin, cefotaxime, and cefuroxime) revealed that the β-lactam core structures were recognized by a common set of residues; however, the R1 side chains of each antibiotic participate in different interactions with PBPD2. In addition, the structural complementarities between the side chains of β-lactams and the enzyme were found to be highly correlated with the relative reactivities of penam or cephem antibiotics against PBPD2. Our study provides the structural basis for the inhibition of PBPD2 by clinically important β-lactam antibiotics that are commonly used in listeriosis treatment. Our findings imply that the modification of β-lactam side chains based on structural complementarity could be useful for the development of potent inhibitors against β-lactam-resistant PBPs.

Resistance mechanisms

By definition, the terms sepsis and septic shock refer to a potentially fatal infectious state in which the early administration of an effective antibiotic is the most significant determinant of the outcome. Because of the global spread of resistant bacteria, the efficacy of antibiotics has been severely compromised. S. pneumonia, Escherichia coli (E. coli), Klebsiella, Acinetobacter, and Pseudomonas are the predominant pathogens of sepsis and septic shock. It is common for E. coli, Klebsiella, Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas to be resistant to multiple drugs. Multiple drug resistance is caused by the interplay of multiple resistance mechanisms those emerge via the acquisition of extraneous resistance determinants or spontaneous mutations. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBLs), carbapenemases, aminoglycoside-modifying enzymes (AMEs) and quinolone resistance determinants are typically external and disseminate on mobile genetic elements, while porin-efflux mechanisms are activated by spontaneous modifications of inherited structures. Porin and efflux mechanisms are frequent companions of multiple drug resistance in Acinetobacter and P. aeruginosa, but only occasionally detected among E. coli and Klebsiella. Antibiotic resistance became a global health threat. This review examines the major resistance mechanisms of the leading microorganisms of sepsis.

The Redundancy of Peptidoglycan Carboxypeptidases Ensures Robust Cell Shape Maintenance in Escherichia coli

Peptidoglycan (PG) is an essential structural component of the bacterial cell wall and maintains the integrity and shape of the cell by forming a continuous layer around the cytoplasmic membrane. The thin PG layer of Escherichia coli resides in the periplasm, a unique compartment whose composition and pH can vary depending on the local environment of the cell. Hence, the growth of the PG layer must be sufficiently robust to allow cell growth and division under different conditions. We have analyzed the PG composition of 28 mutants lacking multiple PG enzymes (penicillin-binding proteins [PBPs]) after growth in acidic or near-neutral-pH media. Statistical analysis of the muropeptide profiles identified dd-carboxypeptidases (DD-CPases) that were more active in cells grown at acidic pH. In particular, the absence of the DD-CPase PBP6b caused a significant increase in the pentapeptide content of PG as well as morphological defects when the cells were grown at acidic pH. Other DD-CPases (PBP4, PBP4b, PBP5, PBP6a, PBP7, and AmpH) and the PG synthase PBP1B made a smaller or null contribution to the pentapeptide-trimming activity at acidic pH. We solved the crystal structure of PBP6b and also demonstrated that the enzyme is more stable and has a lower Km at acidic pH, explaining why PBP6b is more active at low pH. Hence, PBP6b is a specialized DD-CPase that contributes to cell shape maintenance at low pH, and E. coli appears to utilize redundant DD-CPases for normal growth under different conditions.

IMPORTANCE

Escherichia coli requires peptidoglycan dd-carboxypeptidases to maintain cell shape by controlling the amount of pentapeptide substrates available to the peptidoglycan synthetic transpeptidases. Why E. coli has eight, seemingly redundant dd-carboxypeptidases has remained unknown. We now show that one of these dd-carboxypeptidases, PBP6b, is important for cell shape maintenance in acidic growth medium, consistent with the higher activity and stability of the enzyme at low pH. Hence, the presence of multiple dd-carboxypeptidases with different enzymatic properties may allow E. coli to maintain a normal cell shape under various growth conditions.

Structural effect of the Asp345a insertion in penicillin-binding protein 2 from penicillin-resistant strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae

A hallmark of penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) from penicillin-resistant strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae is insertion of an aspartate after position 345. The insertion resides on a loop near the active site and is immediately adjacent to an existing aspartate (Asp346) that forms a functionally important hydrogen bond with Ser363 of the SxN conserved motif. Insertion of other amino acids, including Glu and Asn, can also lower the rate of acylation by penicillin, but these insertions abolish transpeptidase function. Although the kinetic consequences of the Asp insertion are well-established, how it impacts the structure of PBP2 is unknown. Here, we report the 2.2 Å resolution crystal structure of a truncated construct of PBP2 containing all five mutations present in PBP2 from the penicillin-resistant strain 6140, including the Asp insertion. Commensurate with the strict specificity for the Asp insertion over similar amino acids, the insertion does not cause disordering of the structure, but rather induces localized flexibility in the β2c−β2d loop. The crystal structure resolves the ambiguity of whether the insertion is Asp345a or Asp346a (due to the adjacent Asp) because the hydrogen bond between Asp346 and Ser362 is preserved and the insertion is therefore Asp346a. The side chain of Asp346a projects directly toward the β-lactam-binding site near Asn364 of the SxN motif. The Asp insertion may lower the rate of acylation by sterically impeding binding of the antibiotic or by hindering breakage of the β-lactam ring during acylation because of the negative charge of its side chain.

Resistance to β-lactam antibiotics conferred by point mutations in penicillin-binding proteins PBP3, PBP4 and PBP6 in Salmonella enterica

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are enzymes responsible for the polymerization of the glycan strand and the cross-linking between glycan chains as well as the target proteins for β-lactam antibiotics. Mutational alterations in PBPs can confer resistance either by reducing binding of the antibiotic to the active site or by evolving a β-lactamase activity that degrades the antibiotic. As no systematic studies have been performed to examine the potential of all PBPs present in one bacterial species to evolve increased resistance against β-lactam antibiotics, we explored the ability of fifteen different defined or putative PBPs in Salmonella enterica to acquire increased resistance against penicillin G. We could after mutagenesis and selection in presence of penicillin G isolate mutants with amino-acid substitutions in the PBPs, FtsI, DacB and DacC (corresponding to PBP3, PBP4 and PBP6) with increased resistance against β-lactam antibiotics. Our results suggest that: (i) most evolved PBPs became ‘generalists” with increased resistance against several different classes of β-lactam antibiotics, (ii) synergistic interactions between mutations conferring antibiotic resistance are common and (iii) the mechanism of resistance of these mutants could be to make the active site more accessible for water allowing hydrolysis or less binding to β-lactam antibiotics.

Characterization of bacterial NMN deamidase as a Ser/Lys hydrolase expands diversity of serine amidohydrolases

NMN deamidase (PncC) is a bacterial enzyme involved in NAD biosynthesis. We have previously demonstrated that PncC is structurally distinct from other known amidohydrolases. Here, we extended PncC characterization by mutating all potential catalytic residues and assessing their individual roles in catalysis through kinetic analyses. Inspection of these residues' spatial arrangement in the active site, allowed us to conclude that PncC is a serine-amidohydrolase, employing a Ser/Lys dyad for catalysis. Analysis of the PncC structure in complex with a modeled NMN substrate supported our conclusion, and enabled us to propose the catalytic mechanism.

Structural analysis of the role of Pseudomonas aeruginosa penicillin-binding protein 5 in β-lactam resistance

Penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5) is one of the most abundant PBPs in Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Although its main function is that of a cell wall dd-carboxypeptidase, it possesses sufficient β-lactamase activity to contribute to the ability of P. aeruginosa to resist the antibiotic activity of the β-lactams. The study of these dual activities is important for understanding the mechanisms of antibiotic resistance by P. aeruginosa, an important human pathogen, and to the understanding of the evolution of β-lactamase activity from the PBP enzymes. We purified a soluble version of P. aeruginosa PBP5 (designated Pa sPBP5) by deletion of its C-terminal membrane anchor. Under in vitro conditions, Pa sPBP5 demonstrates both dd-carboxypeptidase and expanded-spectrum β-lactamase activities. Its crystal structure at a 2.05-Å resolution shows features closely resembling those of the class A β-lactamases, including a shortened loop spanning residues 74 to 78 near the active site and with respect to the conformations adopted by two active-site residues, Ser101 and Lys203. These features are absent in the related PBP5 of Escherichia coli. A comparison of the two Pa sPBP5 monomers in the asymmetric unit, together with molecular dynamics simulations, revealed an active-site flexibility that may explain its carbapenemase activity, a function that is absent in the E. coli PBP5 enzyme. Our functional and structural characterizations underscore the versatility of this PBP5 in contributing to the β-lactam resistance of P. aeruginosa while highlighting how broader β-lactamase activity may be encoded in the structural folds shared by the PBP and serine β-lactamase classes.

Mechanisms of the formation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae resistance to cephalosporins

The authors provide a review of the present-day literature data on the issues of studying the mechanisms of the formation of Neisseria gonorrhoeae resistance to third-generation cephalosporins. Studies in this field are needed in connection with the occurrence of strains resistant to third-generation cephalosporins as well as low-sensitivity strains. The authors emphasize the importance of mutations in porB, penA, mtrR, penB and ponA genes in the development of Neisseria gonorrhoeae resistance to β-lactam antibiotics and describe the prospects of studying the mosaic structure of the penA gene encoding the РВР2 protein as well as spatial structure of this protein.

Moderate deacylation efficiency of DacD explains its ability to partially restore beta-lactam resistance in Escherichia coli PBP5 mutant

Of the five dd-carboxypeptidases in Escherichia coli, only PBP5 demonstrates its physiological significance by maintaining cell shape and intrinsic beta-lactam resistance. DacD can partially compensate for the lost beta-lactam resistance in PBP5 mutant, although its biochemical reason is unclear. To understand the mechanism(s) underlying such behaviour, we constructed soluble DacD (sDacD) and compared its biophysical and biochemical properties with those of sPBP5, in vitro. Unlike sPBP6, sDacD can deacylate Bocillin significantly, which is very similar to sPBP5. sDacD shows weak dd-carboxypeptidase activity, although lower than that of sPBP5. Bioinformatics analyses reveal a similar architecture of sPBP5 and sDacD. Therefore, based on the obtained results we can infer that biochemically DacD and PBP5 are more closely related to each other than to PBP6, enabling DacD and PBP5 to play a nearly similar physiological function in terms of recovering the lost beta-lactam resistance.

An automated flow for directed evolution based on detection of promiscuous scaffolds using spatial and electrostatic properties of catalytic residues

The aspiration to mimic and accelerate natural evolution has fueled interest in directed evolution experiments, which endow or enhance functionality in enzymes. Barring a few de novo approaches, most methods take a template protein having the desired activity, known active site residues and structure, and proceed to select a target protein which has a pre-existing scaffold congruent to the template motif. Previously, we have established a computational method (CLASP) based on spatial and electrostatic properties to detect active sites, and a method to quantify promiscuity in proteins. We exploit the prospect of promiscuous active sites to serve as the starting point for directed evolution and present a method to select a target protein which possesses a significant partial match with the template scaffold (DECAAF). A library of partial motifs, constructed from the active site residues of the template protein, is used to rank a set of target proteins based on maximal significant matches with the partial motifs, and cull out the best candidate from the reduced set as the target protein. Considering the scenario where this ‘incubator’ protein lacks activity, we identify mutations in the target protein that will mirror the template motif by superimposing the target and template protein based on the partial match. Using this superimposition technique, we analyzed the less than expected gain of activity achieved by an attempt to induce β-lactamase activity in a penicillin binding protein (PBP) (PBP-A from T. elongatus), and attributed this to steric hindrance from neighboring residues. We also propose mutations in PBP-5 from E. coli, which does not have similar steric constraints. The flow details have been worked out in an example which aims to select a substitute protein for human neutrophil elastase, preferably related to grapevines, in a chimeric anti-microbial enzyme which bolsters the innate immune defense system of grapevines.

The Dac-tag, an affinity tag based on penicillin-binding protein 5

Penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5), a product of the Escherichia coli gene dacA, possesses some β-lactamase activity. On binding to penicillin or related antibiotics via an ester bond, it deacylates and destroys them functionally by opening the β-lactam ring. This process takes several minutes. We exploited this process and showed that a fragment of PBP5 can be used as a reversible and monomeric affinity tag. At ambient temperature (e.g., 22°C), a PBP5 fragment binds rapidly and specifically to ampicillin Sepharose. Release can be facilitated either by eluting with 10mM ampicillin or in a ligand-free manner by incubation in the cold (1-10°C) in the presence of 5% glycerol. The "Dac-tag", named with reference to the gene dacA, allows the isolation of remarkably pure fusion protein from a wide variety of expression systems, including (in particular) eukaryotic expression systems.

A highly conserved interaction involving the middle residue of the SXN active-site motif is crucial for function of class B penicillin-binding proteins: mutational and computational analysis of PBP 2 from N. gonorrhoeae

Insertion of an aspartate residue at position 345a in penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP 2), which lowers the rate of penicillin acylation by ~6-fold, is commonly observed in penicillin-resistant strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae. Here, we show that insertions of other amino acids also lower the penicillin acylation rate of PBP 2, but none supported growth of N. gonorrhoeae, indicating loss of essential transpeptidase activity. The Asp345a mutation likely acts by altering the interaction between its adjacent residue, Asp346, in the β2a-β2d hairpin loop and Ser363, the middle residue of the SXN active site motif. Because the adjacent aspartate creates ambiguity in the position of the insertion, we also examined if insertions at position 346a could confer decreased susceptibility to penicillin. However, only aspartate insertions were identified, indicating that only an Asp-Asp couple can confer resistance and retain transpeptidase function. The importance of the Asp346-Ser363 interaction was assessed by mutation of each residue to Ala. Although both mutants lowered the acylation rate of penicillin G by 5-fold, neither could support growth of N. gonorrhoeae, again indicating loss of transpeptidase function. Interaction between a residue in the equivalent of the β2a-β2d hairpin loop and the middle residue of the SXN motif is observed in crystal structures of other Class B PBPs, and its importance is also supported by multisequence alignments. Overall, these results suggest that this conserved interaction can be manipulated (e.g., by insertion) to lower the acylation rate by β-lactam antibiotics and increase resistance, but only if essential transpeptidase activity is preserved.

Peptidoglycan hydrolases of Escherichia coli

The review summarizes the abundant information on the 35 identified peptidoglycan (PG) hydrolases of Escherichia coli classified into 12 distinct families, including mainly glycosidases, peptidases, and amidases. An attempt is also made to critically assess their functions in PG maturation, turnover, elongation, septation, and recycling as well as in cell autolysis. There is at least one hydrolytic activity for each bond linking PG components, and most hydrolase genes were identified. Few hydrolases appear to be individually essential. The crystal structures and reaction mechanisms of certain hydrolases having defined functions were investigated. However, our knowledge of the biochemical properties of most hydrolases still remains fragmentary, and that of their cellular functions remains elusive. Owing to redundancy, PG hydrolases far outnumber the enzymes of PG biosynthesis. The presence of the two sets of enzymes acting on the PG bonds raises the question of their functional correlations. It is difficult to understand why E. coli keeps such a large set of PG hydrolases. The subtle differences in substrate specificities between the isoenzymes of each family certainly reflect a variety of as-yet-unidentified physiological functions. Their study will be a far more difficult challenge than that of the steps of the PG biosynthesis pathway.

Penicillin-binding protein 5 can form a homo-oligomeric complex in the inner membrane of Escherichia coli

Penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5) is a DD-carboxypeptidase, which cleaves the terminal D-alanine from the muramyl pentapeptide in the peptidoglycan layer of Escherichia coli and other bacteria. In doing so, it varies the substrates for transpeptidation and plays a key role in maintaining cell shape. In this study, we have analyzed the oligomeric state of PBP5 in detergent and in its native environment, the inner membrane. Both approaches indicate that PBP5 exists as a homo-oligomeric complex, most likely as a homo-dimer. As the crystal structure of the soluble domain of PBP5 (i.e., lacking the membrane anchor) shows a monomer, we used our experimental data to generate a model of the homo-dimer. This model extends our understanding of PBP5 function as it suggests how PBP5 can interact with the peptidoglycan layer. It suggests that the stem domains interact and the catalytic domains have freedom to move from the position observed in the crystal structure. This would allow the catalytic domain to have access to pentapeptides at different distances from the membrane.

Multivariate geometrical analysis of catalytic residues in the penicillin-binding proteins

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are bacterial enzymes involved in the final stages of cell wall biosynthesis, and are targets of the β-lactam antibiotics. They can be subdivided into essential high-molecular-mass (HMM) and non-essential low-molecular-mass (LMM) PBPs, and further divided into subclasses based on sequence homologies. PBPs can catalyze transpeptidase or hydrolase (carboxypeptidase and endopeptidase) reactions. The PBPs are of interest for their role in bacterial cell wall biosynthesis, and as mechanistically interesting enzymes which can catalyze alternative reaction pathways using the same catalytic machinery. A global catalytic residue comparison seemed likely to provide insight into structure-function correlations within the PBPs. More than 90 PBP structures were aligned, and a number (40) of active site geometrical parameters extracted. This dataset was analyzed using both univariate and multivariate statistical methods. Several interesting relationships were observed. (1) Distribution of the dihedral angle for the SXXK-motif Lys side chain (DA_1) was bimodal, and strongly correlated with HMM/transpeptidase vs LMM/hydrolase classification/activity (P<0.001). This structural feature may therefore be associated with the main functional difference between the HMM and LMM PBPs. (2) The distance between the SXXK-motif Lys-NZ atom and the Lys/His-nitrogen atom of the (K/H)T(S)G-motif was highly conserved, suggesting importance for PBP function, and a possibly conserved role in the catalytic mechanism of the PBPs. (3) Principal components-based cluster analysis revealed several distinct clusters, with the HMM Class A and B, LMM Class C, and LMM Class A K15 PBPs forming one "Main" cluster, and demonstrating a globally similar arrangement of catalytic residues within this group.

Crystal structures of covalent complexes of β-lactam antibiotics with Escherichia coli penicillin-binding protein 5: toward an understanding of antibiotic specificity

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are the molecular targets for the widely used β-lactam class of antibiotics, but how these compounds act at the molecular level is not fully understood. We have determined crystal structures of Escherichia coli PBP 5 as covalent complexes with imipenem, cloxacillin, and cefoxitin. These antibiotics exhibit very different second-order rates of acylation for the enzyme. In all three structures, there is excellent electron density for the central portion of the β-lactam, but weak or absent density for the R1 or R2 side chains. Areas of contact between the antibiotics and PBP 5 do not correlate with the rates of acylation. The same is true for conformational changes, because although a shift of a loop leading to an electrostatic interaction between Arg248 and the β-lactam carboxylate, which occurs completely with cefoxitin and partially with imipenem and is absent with cloxacillin, is consistent with the different rates of acylation, mutagenesis of Arg248 decreased the level of cefoxitin acylation only 2-fold. Together, these data suggest that structures of postcovalent complexes of PBP 5 are unlikely to be useful vehicles for the design of new covalent inhibitors of PBPs. Finally, superimposition of the imipenem-acylated complex with PBP 5 in complex with a boronic acid peptidomimetic shows that the position corresponding to the hydrolytic water molecule is occluded by the ring nitrogen of the β-lactam. Because the ring nitrogen occupies a similar position in all three complexes, this supports the hypothesis that deacylation is blocked by the continued presence of the leaving group after opening of the β-lactam ring.

Septal and lateral wall localization of PBP5, the major D,D-carboxypeptidase of Escherichia coli, requires substrate recognition and membrane attachment

The distribution of PBP5, the major D,D-carboxypeptidase in Escherichia coli, was mapped by immunolabelling and by visualization of GFP fusion proteins in wild-type cells and in mutants lacking one or more D,D-carboxypeptidases. In addition to being scattered around the lateral envelope, PBP5 was also concentrated at nascent division sites prior to visible constriction. Inhibiting PBP2 activity (which eliminates wall elongation) shifted PBP5 to midcell, whereas inhibiting PBP3 (which aborts divisome invagination) led to the creation of PBP5 rings at positions of preseptal wall formation, implying that PBP5 localizes to areas of ongoing peptidoglycan synthesis. A PBP5(S44G) active site mutant was more evenly dispersed, indicating that localization required enzyme activity and the availability of pentapeptide substrates. Both the membrane bound and soluble forms of PBP5 converted pentapeptides to tetrapeptides in vitro and in vivo, and the enzymes accepted the same range of substrates, including sacculi, Lipid II, muropeptides and artificial substrates. However, only the membrane-bound form localized to the developing septum and restored wild-type rod morphology to shape defective mutants, suggesting that the two events are related. The results indicate that PBP5 localization to sites of ongoing peptidoglycan synthesis is substrate dependent and requires membrane attachment.

Unusual conformation of the SxN motif in the crystal structure of penicillin-binding protein A from Mycobacterium tuberculosis

PBPA from Mycobacterium tuberculosis is a class B-like penicillin-binding protein (PBP) that is not essential for cell growth in M. tuberculosis, but is important for proper cell division in Mycobacterium smegmatis. We have determined the crystal structure of PBPA at 2.05 A resolution, the first published structure of a PBP from this important pathogen. Compared to other PBPs, PBPA has a relatively small N-terminal domain, and conservation of a cluster of charged residues within this domain suggests that PBPA is more related to class B PBPs than previously inferred from sequence analysis. The C-terminal domain is a typical transpeptidase fold and contains the three conserved active-site motifs characteristic of penicillin-interacting enzymes. Whilst the arrangement of the SxxK and KTG motifs is similar to that observed in other PBPs, the SxN motif is markedly displaced away from the active site, such that its serine (Ser281) is not involved in hydrogen bonding with residues of the other two motifs. A disulfide bridge between Cys282 (the "x" of the SxN motif) and Cys266, which resides on an adjacent loop, may be responsible for this unusual conformation. Another interesting feature of the structure is a relatively long connection between beta 5 and alpha 11, which restricts the space available in the active site of PBPA and suggests that conformational changes would be required to accommodate peptide substrate or beta-lactam antibiotics during acylation. Finally, the structure shows that one of the two threonines postulated to be targets for phosphorylation is inaccessible (Thr362), whereas the other (Thr437) is well placed on a surface loop near the active site.

Deletion of penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5) sensitises Escherichia coli cells to beta-lactam agents

Escherichia coli penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5), a dd-carboxypeptidase encoded by the dacA gene, plays a key role in the maintenance of cell shape. Although PBP5 shares one of the highest copy numbers among the PBPs, it is not essential for cell survival. To determine the effect of this redundant PBP on beta-lactam antibiotic susceptibility, PBP5 was deleted from O-antigen-negative E. coli K-12 (CS109) and O8-antigen-positive E. coli 2443, thus creating strains AM15-1 and AG1O5-1, respectively. Compared with the parent strains, both mutants were four- to eight-fold more susceptible to all the beta-lactam antibiotics tested. Reversion to beta-lactam resistance was observed in the mutants upon complementing with cloned PBP5, indicating the involvement of PBP5 in maintaining an O-antigen-independent intrinsic beta-lactam resistance in E. coli cells. To check whether other dacA homologues were able to substitute this behaviour of E. coli PBP5, AG1O5-1 was complemented with its nearest dacA homologues (Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium LT2, Vibrio cholerae and Haemophilus influenzae). All of the cloned homologues were capable of restoring the lost beta-lactam resistance in AG1O5-1, either completely or at least partially. Therefore, apart from maintaining cell shape, involvement of PBP5 in maintaining intrinsic beta-lactam resistance is an important physiological observation and we speculate that such a strategy of deleting PBP5 may be helpful to introduce beta-lactam susceptibility in the laboratory.

Molecular basis for the role of Staphylococcus aureus penicillin binding protein 4 in antimicrobial resistance

Penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) are membrane-associated proteins that catalyze the final step of murein biosynthesis. These proteins function as either transpeptidases or carboxypeptidases and in a few cases demonstrate transglycosylase activity. Both transpeptidase and carboxypeptidase activities of PBPs occur at the D-Ala-D-Ala terminus of a murein precursor containing a disaccharide pentapeptide comprising N-acetylglucosamine and N-acetyl-muramic acid-L-Ala-D-Glu-L-Lys-D-Ala-D-Ala. Beta-lactam antibiotics inhibit these enzymes by competing with the pentapeptide precursor for binding to the active site of the enzyme. Here we describe the crystal structure, biochemical characteristics, and expression profile of PBP4, a low-molecular-mass PBP from Staphylococcus aureus strain COL. The crystal structures of PBP4-antibiotic complexes reported here were determined by molecular replacement, using the atomic coordinates deposited by the New York Structural Genomics Consortium. While the pbp4 gene is not essential for the viability of S. aureus, the knockout phenotype of this gene is characterized by a marked reduction in cross-linked muropeptide and increased vancomycin resistance. Unlike other PBPs, we note that expression of PBP4 was not substantially altered under different experimental conditions, nor did it change across representative hospital- or community-associated strains of S. aureus that were examined. In vitro data on purified recombinant S. aureus PBP4 suggest that it is a beta-lactamase and is not trapped as an acyl intermediate with beta-lactam antibiotics. Put together, the expression analysis and biochemical features of PBP4 provide a framework for understanding the function of this protein in S. aureus and its role in antimicrobial resistance.

A weak DD-carboxypeptidase activity explains the inability of PBP 6 to substitute for PBP 5 in maintaining normal cell shape in Escherichia coli

Penicillin-binding protein (PBP) 5 plays a critical role in maintaining normal cellular morphology in mutants of Escherichia coli lacking multiple PBPs. The most closely related homologue, PBP 6, is 65% identical to PBP 5, but is unable to substitute for PBP 5 in returning these mutants to their wild-type shape. The relevant differences between PBPs 5 and 6 are localized in a 20-amino acid stretch of domain I in these proteins, which includes the canonical KTG motif at the active site. We determined how these differences affected the enzymatic properties of PBPs 5 and 6 toward beta-lactam binding and the binding and hydrolysis of two peptide substrates. We also investigated the enzymatic properties of recombinant fusion proteins in which active site segments were swapped between PBPs 5 and 6. The results suggest that the in vivo physiological role of PBP 5 is distinguished from PBP 6 by the higher degree of DD-carboxypeptidase activity of the former.

Crystal structures of penicillin-binding protein 6 from Escherichia coli

Penicillin-binding protein 6 (PBP6) is one of the two main DD-carboxypeptidases in Escherichia coli, which are implicated in maturation of bacterial cell wall and formation of cell shape. Here, we report the first X-ray crystal structures of PBP6, capturing its apo state (2.1 A), an acyl-enzyme intermediate with the antibiotic ampicillin (1.8 A), and for the first time for a PBP, a preacylation complex (a "Michaelis complex", determined at 1.8 A) with a peptidoglycan substrate fragment containing the full pentapeptide, NAM-(L-Ala-D-isoGlu-L-Lys-D-Ala-D-Ala). These structures illuminate the molecular interactions essential for ligand recognition and catalysis by DD-carboxypeptidases, and suggest a coupling of conformational flexibility of active site loops to the reaction coordinate. The substrate fragment complex structure, in particular, provides templates for models of cell wall recognition by PBPs, as well as substantiating evidence for the molecular mimicry by beta-lactam antibiotics of the peptidoglycan acyl-D-Ala-D-Ala moiety.

A comprehensive proteome map of the Haemophilus parasuis serovar 5

Haemophilus parasuis is the causative agent of Glässer's disease of pigs, a disease associated with fibrinous polyserositis, polyarthritis and meningitis. Systematic reference maps of outer membrane, intracellular and extracellular proteome fractions of the clinical isolate H. parasuis SH0165 were examined by 2-DE coupled with MALDI-TOF MS. A total of 539 proteins spots were successfully identified, corresponding to 317 different proteins that were classified into functional categories. The majority of these proteins were linked to housekeeping functions in amino acid transport and metabolism, secondary metabolites biosynthesis, transport and catabolism and post-translational modification, protein turnover and chaperones. A significant number of outer membrane proteins were identified, such as Wza, Omp2, Omp5, D15 and PalA, which were supposed to play important roles in basic physiology of H. parasuis. In addition, several virulence-associated proteins involved in type I (TolC), type III (DsbA and DsbC) and type V (Autotransporter adhesins) secretion systems, and solute-binding proteins participating in iron-uptake systems were also identified in the present study.

Crystal structures of penicillin-binding protein 2 from penicillin-susceptible and -resistant strains of Neisseria gonorrhoeae reveal an unexpectedly subtle mechanism for antibiotic resistance

Penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2) from N. gonorrhoeae is the major molecular target for beta-lactam antibiotics used to treat gonococcal infections. PBP2 from penicillin-resistant strains of N. gonorrhoeae harbors an aspartate insertion after position 345 (Asp-345a) and 4-8 additional mutations, but how these alter the architecture of the protein is unknown. We have determined the crystal structure of PBP2 derived from the penicillin-susceptible strain FA19, which shows that the likely effect of Asp-345a is to alter a hydrogen-bonding network involving Asp-346 and the SXN triad at the active site. We have also solved the crystal structure of PBP2 derived from the penicillin-resistant strain FA6140 that contains four mutations near the C terminus of the protein. Although these mutations lower the second order rate of acylation for penicillin by 5-fold relative to wild type, comparison of the two structures shows only minor structural differences, with the positions of the conserved residues in the active site essentially the same in both. Kinetic analyses indicate that two mutations, P551S and F504L, are mainly responsible for the decrease in acylation rate. Melting curves show that the four mutations lower the thermal stability of the enzyme. Overall, these data suggest that the molecular mechanism underlying antibiotic resistance contributed by the four mutations is subtle and involves a small but measurable disordering of residues in the active site region that either restricts the binding of antibiotic or impedes conformational changes that are required for acylation by beta-lactam antibiotics.

Unconventional serine proteases: variations on the catalytic Ser/His/Asp triad configuration

Serine proteases comprise nearly one-third of all known proteases identified to date and play crucial roles in a wide variety of cellular as well as extracellular functions, including the process of blood clotting, protein digestion, cell signaling, inflammation, and protein processing. Their hallmark is that they contain the so-called "classical" catalytic Ser/His/Asp triad. Although the classical serine proteases are the most widespread in nature, there exist a variety of "nonclassical" serine proteases where variations to the catalytic triad are observed. Such variations include the triads Ser/His/Glu, Ser/His/His, and Ser/Glu/Asp, and include the dyads Ser/Lys and Ser/His. Other variations are seen with certain serine and threonine peptidases of the Ntn hydrolase superfamily that carry out catalysis with a single active site residue. This work discusses the structure and function of these novel serine proteases and threonine proteases and how their catalytic machinery differs from the prototypic serine protease class.

A new family of cyanobacterial penicillin-binding proteins. A missing link in the evolution of class A beta-lactamases

It is largely accepted that serine beta-lactamases evolved from some ancestral DD-peptidases involved in the biosynthesis and maintenance of the bacterial peptidoglycan. DD-peptidases are also called penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), since they form stable acyl-enzymes with beta-lactam antibiotics, such as penicillins. On the other hand, beta-lactamases react similarly with these antibiotics, but the acyl-enzymes are unstable and rapidly hydrolyzed. Besides, all known PBPs and beta-lactamases share very low sequence similarities, thus rendering it difficult to understand how a PBP could evolve into a beta-lactamase. In this study, we identified a new family of cyanobacterial PBPs featuring the highest sequence similarity with the most widespread class A beta-lactamases. Interestingly, the Omega-loop, which, in the beta-lactamases, carries an essential glutamate involved in the deacylation process, is six amino acids shorter and does not contain any glutamate residue. From this new family of proteins, we characterized PBP-A from Thermosynechococcus elongatus and discovered hydrolytic activity with synthetic thiolesters that are usually good substrates of DD-peptidases. Penicillin degradation pathways as well as acylation and deacylation rates are characteristic of PBPs. In a first attempt to generate beta-lactamase activity, a 90-fold increase in deacylation rate was obtained by introducing a glutamate in the shorter Omega-loop.

Investigation of the mechanism of the cell wall DD-carboxypeptidase reaction of penicillin-binding protein 5 of Escherichia coli by quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics calculations

Penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP 5) of Escherichia coli hydrolyzes the terminal D-Ala-D-Ala peptide bond of the stem peptides of the cell wall peptidoglycan. The mechanism of PBP 5 catalysis of amide bond hydrolysis is initial acylation of an active site serine by the peptide substrate, followed by hydrolytic deacylation of this acyl-enzyme intermediate to complete the turnover. The microscopic events of both the acylation and deacylation half-reactions have not been studied. This absence is addressed here by the use of explicit-solvent molecular dynamics simulations and ONIOM quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations. The potential-energy surface for the acylation reaction, based on MP2/6-31+G(d) calculations, reveals that Lys47 acts as the general base for proton abstraction from Ser44 in the serine acylation step. A discrete potential-energy minimum for the tetrahedral species is not found. The absence of such a minimum implies a conformational change in the transition state, concomitant with serine addition to the amide carbonyl, so as to enable the nitrogen atom of the scissile bond to accept the proton that is necessary for progression to the acyl-enzyme intermediate. Molecular dynamics simulations indicate that transiently protonated Lys47 is the proton donor in tetrahedral intermediate collapse to the acyl-enzyme species. Two pathways for this proton transfer are observed. One is the direct migration of a proton from Lys47. The second pathway is proton transfer via an intermediary water molecule. Although the energy barriers for the two pathways are similar, more conformers sample the latter pathway. The same water molecule that mediates the Lys47 proton transfer to the nitrogen of the departing D-Ala is well positioned, with respect to the Lys47 amine, to act as the hydrolytic water in the deacylation step. Deacylation occurs with the formation of a tetrahedral intermediate over a 24 kcal x mol(-1) barrier. This barrier is approximately 2 kcal x mol(-1) greater than the barrier (22 kcal x mol(-1)) for the formation of the tetrahedral species in acylation. The potential-energy surface for the collapse of the deacylation tetrahedral species gives a 24 kcal x mol(-1) higher energy species for the product, signifying that the complex would readily reorganize and pave the way for the expulsion of the product of the reaction from the active site and the regeneration of the catalyst. These computational data dovetail with the knowledge on the reaction from experimental approaches.

Crystal structures of complexes of bacterial DD-peptidases with peptidoglycan-mimetic ligands: the substrate specificity puzzle

The X-ray crystal structures of covalent complexes of the Actinomadura R39 dd-peptidase and Escherichia coli penicillin-binding protein (PBP) 5 with beta-lactams bearing peptidoglycan-mimetic side chains have been determined. The structure of the hydrolysis product of an analogous peptide bound noncovalently to the former enzyme has also been obtained. The R39 DD-peptidase structures reveal the presence of a specific binding site for the D-alpha-aminopimelyl side chain, characteristic of the stem peptide of Actinomadura R39. This binding site features a hydrophobic cleft for the pimelyl methylene groups and strong hydrogen bonding to the polar terminus. Both of these active site elements are provided by amino acid side chains from two separate domains of the protein. In contrast, no clear electron density corresponding to the terminus of the peptidoglycan-mimetic side chains is present when these beta-lactams are covalently bound to PBP5. There is, therefore, no indication of a specific side-chain binding site in this enzyme. These results are in agreement with those from kinetics studies published earlier and support the general prediction made at the time of a direct correlation between kinetics and structural evidence. The essential high-molecular-mass PBPs have demonstrated, to date, no specific reactivity with peptidoglycan-mimetic peptide substrates and beta-lactam inhibitors and, thus, probably do not possess a specific substrate-binding site of the type demonstrated here with the R39 DD-peptidase. This striking deficiency may represent a sophisticated defense mechanism against low-molecular-mass substrate-analogue inhibitors/antibiotics; its discovery should focus new inhibitor design.

Physiological functions of D-alanine carboxypeptidases in Escherichia coli

Bacterial cell shape is, in part, mediated by the peptidoglycan (murein) sacculus. Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) catalyze the final stages of murein biogenesis and are the targets of beta-lactam antibiotics. Several low molecular mass PBPs including PBP4, PBP5, PBP6 and DacD seem to possess DD-carboxypeptidase (DD-CPase) activity, but these proteins are dispensable for survival in laboratory culture. The physiological functions of DD-CPases in vivo are unresolved and it is unclear why bacteria retain these seemingly non-essential and enzymatically redundant enzymes. However, PBP5 clearly contributes to maintenance of cell shape in some PBP mutant backgrounds. In this review, we focus on recent findings concerning the physiological functions of the DD-CPases in vivo, identify gaps in the current knowledge of these proteins and suggest some possible courses for future study that might help reconcile current models of bacterial cell morphology.

Bacterial peptidoglycan (murein) hydrolases

Most bacteria have multiple peptidoglycan hydrolases capable of cleaving covalent bonds in peptidoglycan sacculi or its fragments. An overview of the different classes of peptidoglycan hydrolases and their cleavage sites is provided. The physiological functions of these enzymes include the regulation of cell wall growth, the turnover of peptidoglycan during growth, the separation of daughter cells during cell division and autolysis. Specialized hydrolases enlarge the pores in the peptidoglycan for the assembly of large trans-envelope complexes (pili, flagella, secretion systems), or they specifically cleave peptidoglycan during sporulation or spore germination. Moreover, peptidoglycan hydrolases are involved in lysis phenomena such as fratricide or developmental lysis occurring in bacterial populations. We will also review the current view on the regulation of autolysins and on the role of cytoplasm hydrolases in peptidoglycan recycling and induction of beta-lactamase.

The MEROPS batch BLAST: a tool to detect peptidases and their non-peptidase homologues in a genome

Many of the 181 families of peptidases contain homologues that are known to have functions other than peptide bond hydrolysis. Distinguishing an active peptidase from a homologue that is not a peptidase requires specialist knowledge of the important active site residues, because replacement or lack of one of these catalytic residues is an important clue that the homologue in question is unlikely to hydrolyse peptide bonds. Now that the rate at which proteins are characterized is outstripped by the rate that genome sequences are determined, many genes are being incorrectly annotated because only sequence similarity is taken into consideration. We present a tool called the MEROPS batch BLAST which not only performs a comparison against the MEROPS sequence collection, but also does a pair-wise alignment with the closest homologue detected and calculates the position of the active site residues. A non-peptidase homologue can be distinguished by the absence or unacceptable replacement of any of these residues. An analysis of peptidase homologues in the genome of the bacterium Erythrobacter litoralis is presented as an example.

Cytoplasmic-membrane anchoring of a class A beta-lactamase and its capacity in manifesting antibiotic resistance

Bacterial beta-lactamases are the major causes of resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics. Three classes of these enzymes are believed to have evolved from ancestral penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), enzymes responsible for bacterial cell wall biosynthesis. Both beta-lactamases and PBPs are able to efficiently form acyl-enzyme species with beta-lactam antibiotics. In contrast to beta-lactamases, PBPs are unable to efficiently turn over antibiotics and therefore are susceptible to inhibition by beta-lactam compounds. Although both PBPs and gram-negative beta-lactamases operate in the periplasm, PBPs are anchored to the cytoplasmic membrane, but beta-lactamases are not. It is believed that beta-lactamases shed the membrane anchor in the course of evolution. The significance of this event remains unclear. In an attempt to demonstrate any potential influence of the membrane anchor on the overall biological consequences of beta-lactamases, we fused the TEM-1 beta-lactamase to the C-terminal membrane-anchor of penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP5) of Escherichia coli. The enzyme was shown to express well in E. coli and was anchored to the cytoplasmic membrane. Expression of the anchored enzyme did not result in any changes in antibiotic resistance pattern of bacteria or growth rates. However, in the process of longer coincubation, the organism that harbored the plasmid for the anchored TEM-1 beta-lactamase lost out to the organism transformed by the plasmid for the nonanchored enzyme over a period of 8 days of continuous growth. The effect would appear to be selection of a variant that eliminates the problematic protein through elimination of the plasmid that encodes it and not structural or catalytic effects at the protein level. It is conceivable that an evolutionary outcome could be the shedding of the sequence for the membrane anchor or alternatively evolution of these enzymes from nonanchored progenitors.

Penicillin binding proteins: key players in bacterial cell cycle and drug resistance processes

Bacterial cell division and daughter cell formation are complex mechanisms whose details are orchestrated by at least a dozen different proteins. Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), membrane-associated macromolecules which play key roles in the cell wall synthesis process, have been exploited for over 70 years as the targets of the highly successful beta-lactam antibiotics. The increasing incidence of beta-lactam resistant microorganisms, coupled to progress made in genomics, genetics and immunofluorescence microscopy techniques, have encouraged the intensive study of PBPs from a variety of bacterial species. In addition, the recent publication of high-resolution structures of PBPs from pathogenic organisms have shed light on the complex intertwining of drug resistance and cell division processes. In this review, we discuss structural, functional and biological features of such enzymes which, albeit having initially been identified several decades ago, are now being aggressively pursued as highly attractive targets for the development of novel antibiotherapies.

A large displacement of the SXN motif of Cys115-modified penicillin-binding protein 5 from Escherichia coli

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which are the lethal targets of beta-lactam antibiotics, catalyse the final stages of peptidoglycan biosynthesis of the bacterial cell wall. PBP 5 of Escherichia coli is a D-alanine CPase (carboxypeptidase) that has served as a useful model to elucidate the catalytic mechanism of low-molecular-mass PBPs. Previous studies have shown that modification of Cys115 with a variety of reagents results in a loss of CPase activity and a large decrease in the rate of deacylation of the penicilloyl-PBP 5 complex [Tamura, Imae and Strominger (1976) J. Biol. Chem. 251, 414-423; Curtis and Strominger (1978) J. Biol. Chem. 253, 2584-2588]. The crystal structure of wild-type PBP 5 in which Cys115 fortuitously had formed a covalent adduct with 2-mercaptoethanol was solved at 2.0 A (0.2 nm) resolution, and these results provide a structural rationale for how thiol-directed reagents lower the rate of deacylation. When compared with the structure of the unmodified wild-type enzyme, a major change in the architecture of the active site is observed. The two largest differences are the disordering of a loop comprising residues 74-90 and a shift in residues 106-111, which results in the displacement of Ser110 of the SXN active-site motif. These results support the developing hypothesis that the SXN motif of PBP 5, and especially Ser110, is intimately involved in the catalytic mechanism of deacylation.

Bacterial cell wall synthesis: new insights from localization studies

In order to maintain shape and withstand intracellular pressure, most bacteria are surrounded by a cell wall that consists mainly of the cross-linked polymer peptidoglycan (PG). The importance of PG for the maintenance of bacterial cell shape is underscored by the fact that, for various bacteria, several mutations affecting PG synthesis are associated with cell shape defects. In recent years, the application of fluorescence microscopy to the field of PG synthesis has led to an enormous increase in data on the relationship between cell wall synthesis and bacterial cell shape. First, a novel staining method enabled the visualization of PG precursor incorporation in live cells. Second, penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs), which mediate the final stages of PG synthesis, have been localized in various model organisms by means of immunofluorescence microscopy or green fluorescent protein fusions. In this review, we integrate the knowledge on the last stages of PG synthesis obtained in previous studies with the new data available on localization of PG synthesis and PBPs, in both rod-shaped and coccoid cells. We discuss a model in which, at least for a subset of PBPs, the presence of substrate is a major factor in determining PBP localization.

Crystal structure of the Actinomadura R39 DD-peptidase reveals new domains in penicillin-binding proteins

Actinomadura sp. R39 produces an exocellular DD-peptidase/penicillin-binding protein (PBP) whose primary structure is similar to that of Escherichia coli PBP4. It is characterized by a high beta-lactam-binding activity (second order rate constant for the acylation of the active site serine by benzylpenicillin: k2/K = 300 mm(-1) s(-1)). The crystal structure of the DD-peptidase from Actinomadura R39 was solved at a resolution of 1.8 angstroms by single anomalous dispersion at the cobalt resonance wavelength. The structure is composed of three domains: a penicillin-binding domain similar to the penicillin-binding domain of E. coli PBP5 and two domains of unknown function. In most multimodular PBPs, additional domains are generally located at the C or N termini of the penicillin-binding domain. In R39, the other two domains are inserted in the penicillin-binding domain, between the SXXK and SXN motifs, in a manner similar to "Matryoshka dolls." One of these domains is composed of a five-stranded beta-sheet with two helices on one side, and the other domain is a double three-stranded beta-sheet inserted in the previous domain. Additionally, the 2.4-angstroms structure of the acyl-enzyme complex of R39 with nitrocefin reveals the absence of active site conformational change upon binding the beta-lactams.

Crystal Structure of a Peptidoglycan Synthesis Regulatory Factor (PBP3) from Streptococcus pneumoniae

Penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are membrane-associated enzymes which perform critical functions in the bacterial cell division process. The single d-Ala,d-Ala (d,d)-carboxypeptidase in Streptococcus pneumoniae, PBP3, has been shown to play a key role in control of availability of the peptidoglycal substrate during cell growth. Here, we have biochemically characterized and solved the crystal structure of a soluble form of PBP3 to 2.8 A resolution. PBP3 folds into an NH(2)-terminal, d,d-carboxypeptidase-like domain, and a COOH-terminal, elongated beta-rich region. The carboxypeptidase domain harbors the classic signature of the penicilloyl serine transferase superfamily, in that it contains a central, five-stranded antiparallel beta-sheet surrounded by alpha-helices. As in other carboxypeptidases, which are present in species whose peptidoglycan stem peptide has a lysine residue at the third position, PBP3 has a 14-residue insertion at the level of its omega loop, a feature that distinguishes it from carboxypeptidases from bacteria whose peptidoglycan harbors a diaminopimelate moiety at this position. PBP3 performs substrate acylation in a highly efficient manner (k(cat)/K(m) = 50,500 M(-1) x s(-1)), an event that may be linked to role in control of pneumococcal peptidoglycan reticulation. A model that places PBP3 poised vertically on the bacterial membrane suggests that its COOH-terminal region could act as a pedestal, placing the active site in proximity to the peptidoglycan and allowing the protein to "skid" on the surface of the membrane, trimming pentapeptides during the cell growth and division processes.

Crystal Structures of the Apo and Penicillin-acylated Forms of the BlaR1 β-Lactam Sensor of Staphylococcus aureus

Staphylococcus aureus is among the most prevalent and antibiotic-resistant of pathogenic bacteria. The resistance of S. aureus to prototypal beta-lactam antibiotics is conferred by two mechanisms: (i) secretion of hydrolytic beta-lactamase enzymes and (ii) production of beta-lactam-insensitive penicillin-binding proteins (PBP2a). Despite their distinct modes of resistance, expression of these proteins is controlled by similar regulation systems, including a repressor (BlaI/MecI) and a multidomain transmembrane receptor (BlaR1/MecR1). Resistance is triggered in response to a covalent binding event between a beta-lactam antibiotic and the extracellular sensor domain of BlaR1/MecR1 by transduction of the binding signal to an intracellular protease domain capable of repressor inactivation. This study describes the first crystal structures of the sensor domain of BlaR1 (BlaRS) from S. aureus in both the apo and penicillin-acylated forms. The structures show that the sensor domain resembles the beta-lactam-hydrolyzing class D beta-lactamases, but is rendered a penicillin-binding protein due to the formation of a very stable acyl-enzyme. Surprisingly, conformational changes upon penicillin binding were not observed in our structures, supporting the hypothesis that transduction of the antibiotic-binding signal into the cytosol is mediated by additional intramolecular interactions of the sensor domain with an adjacent extracellular loop in BlaR1.

Overexpression and enzymatic characterization of Neisseria gonorrhoeae penicillin-binding protein 4

The penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) are ubiquitous bacterial enzymes involved in cell wall biosynthesis, and are the targets of the beta-lactam antibiotics. The low molecular mass Neisseria gonorrhoeae PBP 4 (NG PBP 4) is the fourth PBP revealed in the gonococcal genome. NG PBP 4 was cloned, overexpressed, purified, and characterized for beta-lactam binding, DD-carboxypeptidase activity, acyl-donor substrate specificity, transpeptidase activity, inhibition by a number of active site directed reagents, and pH profile. NG PBP 4 was efficiently acylated by penicillin (30,000 m-1.s-1). Against a set of five alpha- and epsilon-substituted l-Lys-D-Ala-D-Ala substrates, NG PBP 4 exhibited wide variation in specificity with a preference for N epsilon-acylated substrates, suggesting a possible preference for crosslinked pentapeptide substrates in the cell wall. Substrates with an N epsilon-Cbz group demonstrated pronounced substrate inhibition. NG PBP 4 showed 30-fold higher activity against the depsipeptide Lac-ester substrate than against the analogous peptide substrate, an indication that k2 (acylation) is rate determining for carboxypeptidase activity. No transpeptidase activity was apparent in a model transpeptidase reaction. Among a number of active site-directed agents, N-chlorosuccinimide, elastinal, iodoacetamide, iodoacetic acid, and phenylglyoxal gave substantial inhibition, and methyl boronic acid gave modest inhibition. The pH profile for activity against Ac2-l-Lys-D-Ala-d-Ala (kcat/Km) was bell-shaped, with pKa values at 6.9 and 10.1. Comparison of the enzymatic properties of NG PBP 4 with other DD-carboxypeptidases highlights both similarities and differences within these enzymes, and suggests the possibility of common mechanistic roles for the two highly conserved active site lysines in Class A and C low molecular mass PBPs.

Crystal Structure of Wild-type Penicillin-binding Protein 5 from Escherichia coli

Penicillin-binding protein 5 (PBP 5) of Escherichia coli functions as a d-alanine carboxypeptidase (CPase), cleaving d-alanine from the C terminus of cell wall peptides. Like all PBPs, PBP 5 forms a covalent acyl-enzyme complex with beta-lactam antibiotics; however, PBP 5 is distinguished by its high rate of deacylation of the acylenzyme complex (t(1/2) approximately 10 min). A Gly105 --> Asp mutation in PBP 5 markedly impairs deacylation with only minor effects on acylation, and abolishes CPase activity. We have determined the three-dimensional structure of a soluble form of wild-type PBP 5 at 1.85-A resolution and have also refined the structure of the G105D mutant form of PBP 5 to 1.9-A resolution. Comparison of the two structures reveals that the major effect of the mutation is to disorder a loop comprising residues 74-90 that sits atop the SXN motif of the active site. Deletion of the 74-90 loop in wild-type PBP 5 markedly diminished the deacylation rate of penicillin G with a minimal impact on acylation, and abolished CPase activity. These effects were very similar to those observed in the G105D mutant, reinforcing the idea that this mutation causes disordering of the 74-90 loop. Mutation of two consecutive serines within this loop, which hydrogen bond to Ser110 and Asn112 in the SXN motif, had marked effects on CPase activity, but not beta-lactam antibiotic binding or hydrolysis. These data suggest a direct role for the SXN motif in deacylation of the acyl-enzyme complex and imply that the functioning of this motif is modulated by the 74-90 loop.