The chaperone protein BiP binds to a mutant prion protein and mediates its degradation by the proteasome

Lysine residues are not required for proteasome-mediated proteolysis of cellular prion protein

Cellular prion protein (PrPC) is a glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored cell-surface protein. The mature cell-surface PrPC is internalized and subsequently degraded by lysosomes. Although, proteasomes are proposed to be involved, the precise mechanism of PrPC degradation remains uncertain. Given that proteins are ubiquitinated primarily on lysine residues, we sought to determine whether lysine residues within PrPC are involved in the ubiquitination and subsequent degradation of PrPC. We generated a plasmid vector expressing a mutant PrPC (called lysine-null PrPC) in which all lysine residues were replaced with arginine residues. Subsequently, we established stably transformed cell lines (designated HpL2-1 PrP-WT and HpL2-1 PrP-K/R, respectively) using the mouse PrPC-deficient neuronal cell line (HpL2-1) and plasmids expressing wild-type (WT) or lysine-null PrPC (PrP-K/R). We found that HpL2-1 PrP-WT and HpL2-1 PrP-K/R cells correctly expressed their respective PrPC which translocated efficiently to the plasma membrane. Subsequently, using immunoblotting and confocal microscopy, we found that treatment with cycloheximide (CHX; a protein synthesis inhibitor) significantly reduced PrPC expression in both these transformed cell lines, indicating that WT and lysine-null PrPC are degraded similarly. Taken together, these results indicate that the lysine residues of PrPC do not regulate its degradation.

Bacteriophage-encoded chaperonins stimulate prion protein fibrillation in an ATP-dependent manner

The pathogenesis of the various prion diseases is based on the conformational conversion of the prion protein from its physiological cellular form to the insoluble scrapie isoform. Several chaperones, including the Hsp60 family of group I chaperonins, are known to contribute to this transformation, but data on their effects are scarce and conflicting. In this work, two GroEL-like phage chaperonins, the single-ring OBP and the double-ring EL, were found to stimulate monomeric prion protein fibrillation in an ATP-dependent manner. The resulting fibrils were characterised by thioflavin T fluorescence, electron microscopy, proteinase K digestion assay and other methods. In the presence of ATP, chaperonins were found to promote the conversion of prion protein monomers into short amyloid fibrils with their further aggregation into less toxic large clusters. Fibrils generated with the assistance of phage chaperonins differ in morphology and properties from those formed spontaneously from monomeric prion in the presence of denaturants at acidic pH.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress and ubiquitin-proteasome system impairment in natural scrapie

Chronic accumulation of misfolded proteins such as PrP^Sc can alter the endoplasmic reticulum homeostasis triggering the unfolded protein response (UPR). In this pathogenic event, the molecular chaperones play an important role. Several reports in humans and animals have suggested that neurodegeneration is related to endoplasmic reticulum stress in diseases caused by the accumulation of misfolded proteins. In this study, we investigated the expression of three endoplasmic reticulum stress markers: PERK (protein kinase R-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase), BiP (binding immunoglobulin protein), and PDI (Protein Disulfide Isomerase). In addition, we evaluated the accumulation of ubiquitin as a marker for protein degradation mediated by the proteasome. These proteins were studied in brain tissues of sheep affected by scrapie in clinical and preclinical stages of the disease. Results were compared with those observed in healthy controls. Scrapie-infected sheep showed significant higher levels of PERK, BiP/Grp78 and PDI than healthy animals. As we observed before in models of spontaneous prion disease, PDI was the most altered ER stress marker between scrapie-infected and healthy sheep. Significantly increased intraneuronal and neuropil ubiquitinated deposits were observed in certain brain areas in scrapie-affected animals compared to controls. Our results suggest that the neuropathological and neuroinflammatory phenomena that develop in prion diseases cause endoplasmic reticulum stress in brain cells triggering the UPR. In addition, the significantly higher accumulation of ubiquitin aggregates in scrapie-affected animals suggests an impairment of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in natural scrapie. Therefore, these proteins may contribute as biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets for prion diseases.

Volleying plasma membrane proteins from birth to death: Role of J-domain proteins

The function, stability, and turnover of plasma membrane (PM) proteins are crucial for cellular homeostasis. Compared to soluble proteins, quality control of plasma membrane proteins is extremely challenging. Failure to meet the high quality control standards is detrimental to cellular and organismal health. J-domain proteins (JDPs) are among the most diverse group of chaperones that collaborate with other chaperones and protein degradation machinery to oversee cellular protein quality control (PQC). Although fragmented, the available literature from different models, including yeast, mammals, and plants, suggests that JDPs assist PM proteins with their synthesis, folding, and trafficking to their destination as well as their degradation, either through endocytic or proteasomal degradation pathways. Moreover, some JDPs interact directly with the membrane to regulate the stability and/or functionality of proteins at the PM. The deconvoluted picture emerging is that PM proteins are relayed from one JDP to another throughout their life cycle, further underscoring the versatility of the Hsp70:JDP machinery in the cell.

Proteostasis unbalance in prion diseases: Mechanisms of neurodegeneration and therapeutic targets

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), or prion diseases, are progressive neurodegenerative disorders of the central nervous system that affect humans and animals as sporadic, inherited, and infectious forms. Similarly to Alzheimer's disease and other neurodegenerative disorders, any attempt to reduce TSEs' lethality or increase the life expectancy of affected individuals has been unsuccessful. Typically, the onset of symptoms anticipates the fatal outcome of less than 1 year, although it is believed to be the consequence of a decades-long process of neuronal death. The duration of the symptoms-free period represents by itself a major obstacle to carry out effective neuroprotective therapies. Prions, the infectious entities of TSEs, are composed of a protease-resistant protein named prion protein scrapie (PrP^Sc) from the prototypical TSE form that afflicts ovines. PrP^Sc misfolding from its physiological counterpart, cellular prion protein (PrP^C), is the unifying pathogenic trait of all TSEs. PrP^Sc is resistant to intracellular turnover and undergoes amyloid-like fibrillation passing through the formation of soluble dimers and oligomers, which are likely the effective neurotoxic entities. The failure of PrP^Sc removal is a key pathogenic event that defines TSEs as proteopathies, likewise other neurodegenerative disorders, including Alzheimer's, Parkinson's, and Huntington's disease, characterized by alteration of proteostasis. Under physiological conditions, protein quality control, led by the ubiquitin-proteasome system, and macroautophagy clears cytoplasm from improperly folded, redundant, or aggregation-prone proteins. There is evidence that both of these crucial homeostatic pathways are impaired during the development of TSEs, although it is still unclear whether proteostasis alteration facilitates prion protein misfolding or, rather, PrP^Sc protease resistance hampers cytoplasmic protein quality control. This review is aimed to critically analyze the most recent advancements in the cause-effect correlation between PrP^C misfolding and proteostasis alterations and to discuss the possibility that pharmacological restoring of ubiquitin-proteasomal competence and stimulation of autophagy could reduce the intracellular burden of PrP^Sc and ameliorate the severity of prion-associated neurodegeneration.

Regulation by Different Types of Chaperones of Amyloid Transformation of Proteins Involved in the Development of Neurodegenerative Diseases

The review highlights various aspects of the influence of chaperones on amyloid proteins associated with the development of neurodegenerative diseases and includes studies conducted in our laboratory. Different sections of the article are devoted to the role of chaperones in the pathological transformation of alpha-synuclein and the prion protein. Information about the interaction of the chaperonins GroE and TRiC as well as polymer-based artificial chaperones with amyloidogenic proteins is summarized. Particular attention is paid to the effect of blocking chaperones by misfolded and amyloidogenic proteins. It was noted that the accumulation of functionally inactive chaperones blocked by misfolded proteins might cause the formation of amyloid aggregates and prevent the disassembly of fibrillar structures. Moreover, the blocking of chaperones by various forms of amyloid proteins might lead to pathological changes in the vital activity of cells due to the impaired folding of newly synthesized proteins and their subsequent processing. The final section of the article discusses both the little data on the role of gut microbiota in the propagation of synucleinopathies and prion diseases and the possible involvement of the bacterial chaperone GroE in these processes.

APP deficiency and HTRA2 modulates PrPc proteostasis in human cancer cells

Cellular protein homeostasis (proteostasis) requires an accurate balance between protein biosynthesis, folding, and degradation, and its instability is causally related to human diseases and cancers. Here, we created numerous engineered cancer cell lines targeting APP (amyloid ß precursor protein) and/or PRNP (cellular prion) genes and we showed that APP knocking-down impaired PRNP mRNA level and vice versa, suggesting a link between their gene regulation. PRNP^KD, APP^KD and PRNP^KD/APP^KD HeLa cells encountered major difficulties to grow in a 3D tissue-like environment. Unexpectedly, we found a cytoplasmic accumulation of the PrP^c protein without PRNP gene up regulation, in both APP^KD and APP^KO HeLa cells. Interestingly, APP and/or PRNP gene ablation enhanced the chaperone/serine protease HTRA2 gene expression, which is a protein processing quality factor involved in Alzheimer's disease. Importantly, HTRA2 gene silencing decreased PRNP mRNA level and lowered PrP^c protein amounts, and conversely, HTRA2 overexpression increased PRNP gene regulation and enhanced membrane-anchored and cytoplasmic PrP^c fractions. PrP^c, APP and HTRA2 destabilized membrane-associated CD24 protein, suggesting changes in the lipid raft structure. Our data show for the first time that APP and the dual chaperone/serine protease HTRA2 protein could modulate PrP^c proteostasis hampering cancer cell behavior.

Gene Therapy Approach with an Emphasis on Growth Factors: Theoretical and Clinical Outcomes in Neurodegenerative Diseases

The etiology of many neurological diseases affecting the central nervous system (CNS) is unknown and still needs more effective and specific therapeutic approaches. Gene therapy has a promising future in treating neurodegenerative disorders by correcting the genetic defects or by therapeutic protein delivery and is now an attraction for neurologists to treat brain disorders, like Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, spinal muscular atrophy, spinocerebellar ataxia, epilepsy, Huntington's disease, stroke, and spinal cord injury. Gene therapy allows the transgene induction, with a unique expression in cells' substrate. This article mainly focuses on the delivering modes of genetic materials in the CNS, which includes viral and non-viral vectors and their application in gene therapy. Despite the many clinical trials conducted so far, data have shown disappointing outcomes. The efforts done to improve outcomes, efficacy, and safety in the identification of targets in various neurological disorders are also discussed here. Adapting gene therapy as a new therapeutic approach for treating neurological disorders seems to be promising, with early detection and delivery of therapy before the neuron is lost, helping a lot the development of new therapeutic options to translate to the clinic.

Natural Thiols, but Not Thioethers, Attenuate Patulin-Induced Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress in HepG2 Cells

Patulin, a mycotoxin, is known to have cytotoxic effects, but few studies have focused on the involvement of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress response in patulin toxicity and the natural compounds that attenuate it in HepG2 cells. This study tested the ability of patulin to induce ER stress, and that of four thiols and three thioethers to attenuate patulin-induced ER stress in HepG2 cells. Patulin dose-dependently inhibited cell proliferation (IC₅₀, 8.43 μM). Additionally, patulin was found to increase the expression levels of ER stress-related genes and/or protein markers, including BiP, CHOP, and spliced XBP1, in HepG2 cells compared to the vehicle control, indicating its potential in ER stress induction. Patulin-induced cytotoxicity in HepG2 cells was reduced by naturally occurring thiol compounds (glutathione, L-acetyl-L-cysteine, cysteine, and captopril), but not by thioether compounds (sulforaphane, sulforaphene, and S-allyl-L-cysteine). Patulin-thiol co-treatment decreased CHOP expression and BiP and CHOP levels in HepG2 cells but did not alter BiP expression. Spliced XBP1 expression was decreased by patulin-thiol co-treatment. Thus, patulin induced ER stress in HepG2 cells and thiols, but not in thioethers, attenuated patulin-induced ER stress.

Functional genomics screen identifies proteostasis targets that modulate prion protein (PrP) stability

Prion protein (PrP) adopts either a helical conformation (PrPC) or an alternative, beta sheet-rich, misfolded conformation (PrPSc). The PrPSc form has the ability to "infect" PrPC and force it into the misfolded state. Accumulation of PrPSc is associated with a number of lethal neurodegenerative disorders, including Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease (CJD). Knockout of PrPC protects cells and animals from PrPSc infection; thus, there is interest in identifying factors that regulate PrPC stability, with the therapeutic goal of reducing PrPC levels and limiting infection by PrPSc. Here, we assembled a short-hairpin RNA (shRNA) library composed of 25+ shRNA sequences for each of 133 protein homeostasis (aka proteostasis) factors, such as molecular chaperones and co-chaperones. This Proteostasis shRNA Library was used to identify regulators of PrPC stability in HEK293 Hu129M cells. Strikingly, the screen identified a number of Hsp70 family members and their co-chaperones as putative targets. Indeed, a chemical pan-inhibitor of Hsp70s reduced PrPC levels and limited conversion to PrPSc in N2a cells. These results implicate specific proteostasis sub-networks, especially the Hsp70 system, as potential new targets for the treatment of CJD. More broadly, the Proteostasis shRNA Library might be a useful tool for asking which proteostasis factors are important for a given protein.

Understanding and exploiting interactions between cellular proteostasis pathways and infectious prion proteins for therapeutic benefit

Several neurodegenerative diseases of humans and animals are caused by the misfolded prion protein (PrP^Sc), a self-propagating protein infectious agent that aggregates into oligomeric, fibrillar structures and leads to cell death by incompletely understood mechanisms. Work in multiple biological model systems, from simple baker's yeast to transgenic mouse lines, as well as in vitro studies, has illuminated molecular and cellular modifiers of prion disease. In this review, we focus on intersections between PrP and the proteostasis network, including unfolded protein stress response pathways and roles played by the powerful regulators of protein folding known as protein chaperones. We close with analysis of promising therapeutic avenues for treatment enabled by these studies.

Assistance for Folding of Disease-Causing Plasma Membrane Proteins

An extensive catalog of plasma membrane (PM) protein mutations related to phenotypic diseases is associated with incorrect protein folding and/or localization. These impairments, in addition to dysfunction, frequently promote protein aggregation, which can be detrimental to cells. Here, we review PM protein processing, from protein synthesis in the endoplasmic reticulum to delivery to the PM, stressing the main repercussions of processing failures and their physiological consequences in pathologies, and we summarize the recent proposed therapeutic strategies to rescue misassembled proteins through different types of chaperones and/or small molecule drugs that safeguard protein quality control and regulate proteostasis.

The PERK-Dependent Molecular Mechanisms as a Novel Therapeutic Target for Neurodegenerative Diseases

Higher prevalence of neurodegenerative diseases is strictly connected with progressive aging of the world population. Interestingly, a broad range of age-related, neurodegenerative diseases is characterized by a common pathological mechanism-accumulation of misfolded and unfolded proteins within the cells. Under certain circumstances, such protein aggregates may evoke endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress conditions and subsequent activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR) signaling pathways via the protein kinase RNA-like endoplasmic reticulum kinase (PERK)-dependent manner. Under mild to moderate ER stress, UPR has a pro-adaptive role. However, severe or long-termed ER stress conditions directly evoke shift of the UPR toward its pro-apoptotic branch, which is considered to be a possible cause of neurodegeneration. To this day, there is no effective cure for Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), or prion disease. Currently available treatment approaches for these diseases are only symptomatic and cannot affect the disease progression. Treatment strategies, currently under detailed research, include inhibition of the PERK-dependent UPR signaling branches. The newest data have reported that the use of small-molecule inhibitors of the PERK-mediated signaling branches may contribute to the development of a novel, ground-breaking therapeutic approach for neurodegeneration. In this review, we critically describe all the aspects associated with such targeted therapy against neurodegenerative proteopathies.

Prion disease is accelerated in mice lacking stress-induced heat shock protein 70 (HSP70)

Prion diseases are a group of incurable neurodegenerative disorders that affect humans and animals via infection with proteinaceous particles called prions. Prions are composed of PrP^Sc, a misfolded version of the cellular prion protein (PrP^C). During disease progression, PrP^Sc replicates by interacting with PrP^C and inducing its conversion to PrP^Sc As PrP^Sc accumulates, cellular stress mechanisms are activated to maintain cellular proteostasis, including increased protein chaperone levels. However, the exact roles of several of these chaperones remain unclear. Here, using various methodologies to monitor prion replication (i.e. protein misfolding cyclic amplification and cellular and animal infectivity bioassays), we studied the potential role of the molecular chaperone heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) in prion replication in vitro and in vivo Our results indicated that pharmacological induction of the heat shock response in cells chronically infected with prions significantly decreased PrP^Sc accumulation. We also found that HSP70 alters prion replication in vitro More importantly, prion infection of mice lacking the genes encoding stress-induced HSP70 exhibited accelerated prion disease progression compared with WT mice. In parallel with HSP70 being known to respond to endogenous and exogenous stressors such as heat, infection, toxicants, and ischemia, our results indicate that HSP70 may also play an important role in suppressing or delaying prion disease progression, opening opportunities for therapeutic intervention.

Prions, prionoids and protein misfolding disorders

Prion diseases are progressive, incurable and fatal neurodegenerative conditions. The term 'prion' was first nominated to express the revolutionary concept that a protein could be infectious. We now know that prions consist of PrP^Sc, the pathological aggregated form of the cellular prion protein PrP^C. Over the years, the term has been semantically broadened to describe aggregates irrespective of their infectivity, and the prion concept is now being applied, perhaps overenthusiastically, to all neurodegenerative diseases that involve protein aggregation. Indeed, recent studies suggest that prion diseases (PrDs) and protein misfolding disorders (PMDs) share some common disease mechanisms, which could have implications for potential treatments. Nevertheless, the transmissibility of bona fide prions is unique, and PrDs should be considered as distinct from other PMDs.

Prion Protein Protects Cancer Cells against Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress Induced Apoptosis

Unfolded protein response (UPR) is an adaptive reaction for cells to reduce endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. In many types of cancers, such as lung cancer and pancreatic cancer, cancer cells may harness ER stress to facilitate their survival and growth. Prion protein (PrP) is a glycosylated cell surface protein that has been shown to be up-regulated in many cancer cells. Since PrP is a protein prone to misfolding, ER stress can result in under-glycosylated PrP, which in turn may activate ER stress. To assess whether ER stress leads to the production of under-glycosylated PrP and whether under-glycosylated PrP may contribute to ER stress thus leading to cancer cell apoptosis, we treated different cancer cells with brefeldin A (BFA), thapsigargin (Thps), and tunicamycin (TM). We found that although BFA, Thps, and TM treatment activated UPR, only ATF4 was consistently activated by these reagents, but not other branches of ER stress. However, the canonical PERK-eIF2α-ATF4 did not account for the observed activation of ATF4 in lung cancer cells. In addition, BFA, but neither Thps nor TM, significantly stimulated the expression of cytosolic PrP. Finally, we found that the levels of PrP contributed to anti-apoptosis activity of BFA-induced cancer cell death. Thus, the pathway of BFA-induced persistent ER stress may be targeted for lung and pancreatic cancer treatment.

Structural Determinants of the Prion Protein N-Terminus and Its Adducts with Copper Ions

The N-terminus of the prion protein is a large intrinsically disordered region encompassing approximately 125 amino acids. In this paper, we review its structural and functional properties, with a particular emphasis on its binding to copper ions. The latter is exploited by the region’s conformational flexibility to yield a variety of biological functions. Disease-linked mutations and proteolytic processing of the protein can impact its copper-binding properties, with important structural and functional implications, both in health and disease progression.

Attempt to Untangle the Prion-Like Misfolding Mechanism for Neurodegenerative Diseases

The misfolding and aggregation of proteins is the neuropathological hallmark for numerous diseases including Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, and prion diseases. It is believed that misfolded and abnormal β-sheets forms of wild-type proteins are the vectors of these diseases by acting as seeds for the aggregation of endogenous proteins. Cellular prion protein (PrP^C) is a glycosyl-phosphatidyl-inositol (GPI) anchored glycoprotein that is able to misfold to a pathogenic isoform PrP^Sc, the causative agent of prion diseases which present as sporadic, dominantly inherited and transmissible infectious disorders. Increasing evidence highlights the importance of prion-like seeding as a mechanism for pathological spread in Alzheimer's disease and Tauopathy, as well as other neurodegenerative disorders. Here, we report the latest findings on the mechanisms controlling protein folding, focusing on the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum) quality control of GPI-anchored proteins and describe the "prion-like" properties of amyloid-β and tau assemblies. Furthermore, we highlight the importance of pathogenic assemblies interaction with protein and lipid membrane components and their implications in both prion and Alzheimer's diseases.

Reduction of the molecular chaperone binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) accentuates the effect of aging on sleep-wake behavior

Sleep and wake quality, quantity, and architecture become modified with aging. Sleep and wake quality decline coinciding with increased fragmentation of both states across aging. We have previously shown that this age-related decline in sleep-wake quality is associated with increased endoplasmic reticular (ER) stress and decreased expression of the major ER chaperone binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP). BiP, also known as glucose-regulated protein 78, plays a key role in controlling the cellular response to ER stress, acting as a regulator of a protein homeostatic signaling pathway known as the unfolded protein response. Induction of BiP during cellular stress is part of an adaptive prosurvival mechanism. Here, using mice heterozygous for BiP, we investigated the effect of reduced BiP expression on sleep-wake behavior across aging; complete knockdown of BiP is embryonic lethal. We report that BiP heterozygosity accentuates the aging sleep-wake phenotype. Sleep and wake fragmentation was more pronounced in the BiP heterozygotes across the 3 ages examined. In mice lacking 1 functional copy of BiP, we observed an age-related significant reduction in wake bout duration and increase in wake bout numbers during the active period, as well as an increase in non rapid eye movement and rapid eye movement bout numbers accompanied by reduced bout durations of both non rapid eye movement and rapid eye movement during the sleep period. In addition, we observed increased ER stress in orexin neurons and occurrence of aggregates immunopositive for orexin at the terminals and projections of orexin neurons in the middle-aged BiP heterozygotes. Taken together, our data indicate that a reduction in the molecular chaperone BiP impacts sleep architecture across aging and that orexin processing is likely to be affected.

Prion protein modulates glucose homeostasis by altering intracellular iron

The prion protein (PrP^C), a mainly neuronal protein, is known to modulate glucose homeostasis in mouse models. We explored the underlying mechanism in mouse models and the human pancreatic β-cell line 1.1B4. We report expression of PrP^C on mouse pancreatic β-cells, where it promoted uptake of iron through divalent-metal-transporters. Accordingly, pancreatic iron stores in PrP knockout mice (PrP^-/-) were significantly lower than wild type (PrP^+/+) controls. Silencing of PrP^C in 1.1B4 cells resulted in significant depletion of intracellular (IC) iron, and remarkably, upregulation of glucose transporter GLUT2 and insulin. Iron overloading, on the other hand, resulted in downregulation of GLUT2 and insulin in a PrP^C-dependent manner. Similar observations were noted in the brain, liver, and neuroretina of iron overloaded PrP^+/+ but not PrP^-/- mice, indicating PrP^C-mediated modulation of insulin and glucose homeostasis through iron. Peripheral challenge with glucose and insulin revealed blunting of the response in iron-overloaded PrP^+/+ relative to PrP^-/- mice, suggesting that PrP^C-mediated modulation of IC iron influences both secretion and sensitivity of peripheral organs to insulin. These observations have implications for Alzheimer's disease and diabetic retinopathy, known complications of type-2-diabetes associated with brain and ocular iron-dyshomeostasis.

Misfolding leads the way to unraveling signaling pathways in the pathophysiology of prion diseases

A misfolded version of the prion protein represents an essential component in the pathophysiology of fatal neurodegenerative prion diseases, which affect humans and animals alike. They may be of sporadic origin, acquired through exogenous introduction of infectious misfolded prion protein, or caused by genetic alterations in the prion protein coding gene. We have recently described a novel pathway linking retention of mutant prion protein in the early secretory pathway to activation p38-MAPK and a neurodegenerative phenotype in transgenic mice. Here we review the consequences that mutations in prion protein have on intracellular transport and stress responses focusing on protein quality control. We also discuss the neurotoxic signaling elicited by the accumulation of mutant prion protein in the endoplasmic reticulum and the Golgi apparatus. Improved knowledge about these processes will help us to better understand complex pathogenesis of prion diseases, a prerequisite for therapeutic strategies.

Regulation of sub-compartmental targeting and folding properties of the Prion-like protein Shadoo

Shadoo (Sho), a member of prion protein family, has been shown to prevent embryonic lethality in Prnp^0/0 mice and to be reduced in the brains of rodents with terminal prion diseases. Sho can also affect PrP structural dynamics and can increase the prion conversion into its misfolded isoform (PrP^Sc), which is amyloidogenic and strictly related to expression, intracellular localization and association of PrP^C to lipid rafts. We reasoned that if Sho possesses a natural tendency to convert to amyloid-like forms in vitro, it should be able to exhibit “prion-like” properties, such as PK-resistance and aggregation state, also in live cells. We tested this hypothesis, by different approaches in neuronal cells, finding that Sho shows folding properties partially dependent on lipid rafts integrity whose alteration, as well as proteasomal block, regulated generation of intermediate Sho isoforms and exacerbated its misfolding. Moreover, a 18 kDa isoform of Sho, likely bearing the signal peptide, was targeted to mitochondria by interacting with the molecular chaperone TRAP1 which, in turn controlled Sho dual targeting to ER or mitochondria. Our studies contribute to understand the role of molecular chaperones and of PrP-related folding intermediates in “prion-like” conversion.

Lysosomal Quality Control in Prion Diseases

Prion diseases are transmissible, familial or sporadic. The prion protein (PrP), a normal cell surface glycoprotein, is ubiquitously expressed throughout the body. While loss of function of PrP does not elicit apparent phenotypes, generation of misfolded forms of the protein or its aberrant metabolic isoforms has been implicated in a number of neurodegenerative disorders such as scrapie, kuru, Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, fatal familial insomnia, Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker and bovine spongiform encephalopathy. These diseases are all phenotypically characterised by spongiform vacuolation of the adult brain, hence collectively termed as late-onset spongiform neurodegeneration. Misfolded form of PrP (PrP^Sc) and one of its abnormal metabolic isoforms (the transmembrane ^CtmPrP) are known to be disease-causing agents that lead to progressive loss of structure or function of neurons culminating in neuronal death. The aberrant forms of PrP utilise and manipulate the various intracellular quality control mechanisms during pathogenesis of these diseases. Amongst these, the lysosomal quality control machinery emerges as one of the primary targets exploited by the disease-causing isoforms of PrP. The autophagosomal-lysosomal degradation pathway is adversely affected in multiple ways in prion diseases and may hence be regarded as an important modulator of neurodegeneration. Some of the ESCRT pathway proteins have also been shown to be involved in the manifestation of disease phenotype. This review discusses the significance of the lysosomal quality control pathway in affecting transmissible and familial types of prion diseases.

GRP78 at the Centre of the Stage in Cancer and Neuroprotection

The 78-kDa glucose-regulated protein GRP78, also known as BiP and HSP5a, is a multifunctional protein with activities far beyond its well-known role in the unfolded protein response (UPR) which is activated after endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress in the cells. Most of these newly discovered activities depend on its position within the cell. GRP78 is located mainly in the ER, but it has also been observed in the cytoplasm, the mitochondria, the nucleus, the plasma membrane, and secreted, although it is dedicated mostly to engage endogenous cytoprotective processes. Hence, GRP78 may control either UPR and macroautophagy or may activated phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT pro-survival pathways. GRP78 influences how tumor cells survive, proliferate, and develop chemoresistance. In neurodegeneration, endogenous mechanisms of neuroprotection are frequently insufficient or dysregulated. Lessons from tumor biology may give us clues about how boosting endogenous neuroprotective mechanisms in age-related neurodegeneration. Herein, the functions of GRP78 are revealed at the center of the stage of apparently opposite sites of the same coin regarding cytoprotection: neurodegeneration and cancer. The goal is to give a comprehensive and critical review that may serve to guide future experiments to identify interventions that will enhance neuroprotection.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum Chaperone GRP78/BiP Modulates Prion Propagation in vitro and in vivo

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders affecting several mammalian species, characterized by the accumulation of the misfolded form of the prion protein, which is followed by the induction of endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and the activation of the unfolded protein response (UPR). GRP78, also called BiP, is a master regulator of the UPR, reducing ER stress levels and apoptosis due to an enhancement of the cellular folding capacity. Here, we studied the role of GRP78 in prion diseases using several in vivo and in vitro approaches. Our results show that a reduction in the expression of this molecular chaperone accelerates prion pathogenesis in vivo. In addition, we observed that prion replication in cell culture was inversely related to the levels of expression of GRP78 and that both proteins interact in the cellular context. Finally, incubation of PrP^Sc with recombinant GRP78 led to the dose-dependent reduction of protease-resistant PrP^Scin vitro. Our results uncover a novel role of GRP78 in reducing prion pathogenesis, suggesting that modulating its levels/activity may offer a novel opportunity for designing therapeutic approaches for these diseases. These findings may also have implications for other diseases involving the accumulation of misfolded proteins.

The stress of prion disease

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders that include scrapie of sheep, bovine spongiform encephalopathy of cattle, chronic wasting disease of cervids, and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) of humans. The etiology for prion diseases can be infectious, sporadic, or hereditary. However, the common denominator for all types is the formation of a transmissible agent composed of a β-sheet-rich, misfolded version of the host-encoded prion protein (PrP^C), known as PrP^Sc. PrP^Sc self-replicates through a template-assisted process that converts the α-helical conformation of PrP^C into the disease-associated isoform. In parallel with PrP^Sc accumulation, spongiform change is pathologically observed in the central nervous system, where "holes" appear because of massive neuronal death. Here, we review the cellular pathways triggered in response to PrP^Sc formation and accumulation. Available data suggest that neuronal dysfunction and death may be caused by what originates as a cellular pro-survival response to chronic PrP^Sc accumulation. We also discuss what is known about the complex cross-talk between the endoplasmic reticulum stress components and the quality control pathways. Better knowledge about these processes may lead to innovative therapeutic strategies based on manipulating the stress response and its consequences for neurodegeneration. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI:ER stress.

Familial prion protein mutants inhibit Hrd1-mediated retrotranslocation of misfolded proteins by depleting misfolded protein sensor BiP

Similar to many proteins trafficking through the secretory pathway, cellular prion protein (PrP) partly retrotranslocates from the endoplasmic reticulum to the cytosol through the endoplasmic reticulum-associated degradation (ERAD) pathway in an attempt to alleviate accumulation of cellular misfolded PrP. Surprisingly, familial PrP mutants fail to retrotranslocate and simultaneously block normal cellular PrP retrotranslocation. That impairments in retrotranslocation of misfolded proteins could lead to global disruptions in cellular homeostasis prompted further investigations into PrP mutant retrotranslocation defects. A gain- and loss-of-function approach identified human E3 ubiquitin ligase, Hrd1, as a critical regulator of PrP retrotranslocation in mammalian cells. Expression of familial human PrP mutants, V210I(129V) and M232R(129V), not only abolished PrP retrotranslocation, but also that of Hrd1-dependent ERAD substrates, transthyretin TTR(D18G) and α1-anti-trypsin A1AT(NHK). Mutant PrP expression decreased binding immunoglobulin protein (BiP) levels by 50% and attenuated ER stress-induced BiP by increasing BiP turnover 6-fold. Overexpression of BiP with PrP mutants rescued retrotranslocation of PrP, TTR(D18G) and A1AT(NHK). PrP mutants-induced cell death was also rescued by co-expression of BiP. These results show that PrP mutants highjack the Hrd1-dependent ERAD pathway, an action that would result in misfolded protein accumulation especially in terminally differentiated neurons. This could explain the age-dependent neuronal degeneration in familial prion diseases.

Unfolded Protein Response and Macroautophagy in Alzheimer's, Parkinson's and Prion Diseases

Proteostasis are integrated biological pathways within cells that control synthesis, folding, trafficking and degradation of proteins. The absence of cell division makes brain proteostasis susceptible to age-related changes and neurodegeneration. Two key processes involved in sustaining normal brain proteostasis are the unfolded protein response and autophagy. Alzheimer’s disease (AD), Parkinson’s disease (PD) and prion diseases (PrDs) have different clinical manifestations of neurodegeneration, however, all share an accumulation of misfolded pathological proteins associated with perturbations in unfolded protein response and macroautophagy. While both the unfolded protein response and macroautophagy play an important role in the prevention and attenuation of AD and PD progression, only macroautophagy seems to play an important role in the development of PrDs. Macroautophagy and unfolded protein response can be modulated by pharmacological interventions. However, further research is necessary to better understand the regulatory pathways of both processes in health and neurodegeneration to be able to develop new therapeutic interventions.

Ubiquitin-specific protease 14 modulates degradation of cellular prion protein

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders characterized by the accumulation of prion protein (PrP^C). To date, there is no effective treatment for the disease. The accumulated PrP, termed PrP^Sc, forms amyloid fibrils and could be infectious. It has been suggested that PrP^Sc is abnormally folded and resistant to proteolytic degradation, and also inhibits proteasomal functions in infected cells, thereby inducing neuronal death. Recent work indicates that the ubiquitin-proteasome system is involved in quality control of PrP^C. To reveal the significance of prion protein ubiqitination, we focused on ubiquitin-specific protease 14 (USP14), a deubiqutinating enzyme that catalyzes trimming of polyubiquitin chains and plays a role in regulation of proteasomal processes. Results from the present study showed that treatment with a selective inhibitor of USP14 reduced PrP^C, as well as PrP^Sc, levels in prion-infected neuronal cells. Overexpression of the dominant negative mutant form of USP14 reduced PrP^Sc, whereas wildtype USP14 increased PrP^Sc in prion-infected cells. These results suggest that USP14 prevents degradation of both normal and abnormal PrP. Collectively, a better understanding about the regulation of PrP^Sc clearance caused by USP14 might contribute greatly to the development of therapeutic strategies for prion diseases.

Prion degradation pathways: Potential for therapeutic intervention

Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders. Pathology is closely linked to the misfolding of native cellular PrP(C) into the disease-associated form PrP(Sc) that accumulates in the brain as disease progresses. Although treatments have yet to be developed, strategies aimed at stimulating the degradation of PrP(Sc) have shown efficacy in experimental models of prion disease. Here, we describe the cellular pathways that mediate PrP(Sc) degradation and review possible targets for therapeutic intervention. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled 'Neuronal Protein'.

Iron in neurodegenerative disorders of protein misfolding: a case of prion disorders and Parkinson's disease

SIGNIFICANCE

Intracellular and extracellular aggregation of a specific protein or protein fragments is the principal pathological event in several neurodegenerative conditions. We describe two such conditions: sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (sCJD), a rare but potentially infectious and invariably fatal human prion disorder, and Parkinson's disease (PD), a common neurodegenerative condition second only to Alzheimer's disease in prevalence. In sCJD, a cell surface glycoprotein known as the prion protein (PrP(C)) undergoes a conformational change to PrP-scrapie, a pathogenic and infectious isoform that accumulates in the brain parenchyma as insoluble aggregates. In PD, α-synuclein, a cytosolic protein, forms insoluble aggregates that accumulate in neurons of the substantia nigra and cause neurotoxicity.

RECENT ADVANCES

Although distinct processes are involved in the pathogenesis of sCJD and PD, both share brain iron dyshomeostasis as a common associated feature that is reflected in the cerebrospinal fluid in a disease-specific manner.

CRITICAL ISSUES

Since PrP(C) and α-synuclein play a significant role in maintaining cellular iron homeostasis, it is important to understand whether the aggregation of these proteins and iron dyshomeostasis are causally related. Here, we discuss recent information on the normal function of PrP(C) and α-synuclein in cellular iron metabolism and the cellular and biochemical processes that contribute to iron imbalance in sCJD and PD.

FUTURE DIRECTIONS

Improved understanding of the relationship between brain iron imbalance and protein aggregation is likely to help in the development of therapeutic strategies that can restore brain iron homeostasis and mitigate neurotoxicity.

Reversible symptoms and clearance of mutant prion protein in an inducible model of a genetic prion disease in Drosophila melanogaster

Prion diseases are progressive disorders that affect the central nervous system leading to memory loss, personality changes, ataxia and neurodegeneration. In humans, these disorders include Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, kuru and Gerstmann-Straüssler-Scheinker (GSS) syndrome, the latter being a dominantly inherited prion disease associated with missense mutations in the gene that codes for the prion protein. The exact mechanism by which mutant prion proteins affect the central nervous system and cause neurological disease is not well understood. We have generated an inducible model of GSS disease in Drosophila melanogaster by temporally expressing a misfolded form of the murine prion protein in cholinergic neurons. Flies accumulating this mutant protein develop motor abnormalities which are associated with electrophysiological defects in cholinergic neurons. We find that, upon blocking the expression of the mutant protein, both behavioral and electrophysiological defects can be reversed. This represents the first case of reversibility reported in a model of genetic prion disease. Additionally, we observe that endogenous mechanisms exist within Drosophila that are capable of clearing the accumulated prion protein.

Prions Ex Vivo: What Cell Culture Models Tell Us about Infectious Proteins

Prions are unconventional infectious agents that are composed of misfolded aggregated prion protein. Prions replicate their conformation by template-assisted conversion of the endogenous prion protein PrP. Templated conversion of soluble proteins into protein aggregates is also a hallmark of other neurodegenerative diseases. Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease are not considered infectious diseases, although aggregate pathology appears to progress in a stereotypical fashion reminiscent of the spreading behavior ofmammalian prions. While basic principles of prion formation have been studied extensively, it is still unclear what exactly drives PrP molecules into an infectious, self-templating conformation. In this review, we discuss crucial steps in the life cycle of prions that have been revealed in ex vivo models. Importantly, the persistent propagation of prions in mitotically active cells argues that cellular processes are in place that not only allow recruitment of cellular PrP into growing prion aggregates but also enable the multiplication of infectious seeds that are transmitted to daughter cells. Comparison of prions with other protein aggregates demonstrates that not all the characteristics of prions are equally shared by prion-like aggregates. Future experiments may reveal to which extent aggregation-prone proteins associated with other neurodegenerative diseases can copy the replication strategies of prions.

Role of proteomics in understanding prion infection

Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies or prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative pathologies characterized by the autocatalytic misfolding and polymerization of a cellular glycoprotein (cellular prion protein [PrP(C)]) that accumulates in the CNS and leads to neurodegeneration. The detailed mechanics of PrP(C) conversion to its pathological isoform (PrP(TSE)) are unclear but one or more exogenous factors are likely involved in the process of PrP misfolding. In the last 20 years, proteomic investigations have identified several endogenous proteins that interact with PrP(C), PrP(TSE) or both, which are possibly involved in the prion pathogenetic process. However, current approaches have not yet produced convincing conclusions on the biological value of such PrP interactors. Future advancements in the comprehension of the molecular pathogenesis of prion diseases, in experimental techniques and in data analysis procedures, together with a boost in more productive international collaborations, are therefore needed to improve the understanding on the role of PrP interactors. Finally, the advancement of 'omics' techniques in prion diseases will contribute to the development of novel diagnostic tests and effective drugs.

Conformational conversion of prion protein in prion diseases

Prion diseases are a group of infectious fatal neurodegenerative diseases. The conformational conversion of a cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) into an abnormal misfolded isoform (PrP(Sc)) is the key event in prion diseases pathology. Under normal conditions, the high-energy barrier separates PrP(C) from PrP(Sc) isoform. However, pathogenic mutations, modifications as well as some cofactors, such as glycosaminoglycans, nucleic acids, and lipids, could modulate the conformational conversion process. Understanding the mechanism of conformational conversion of prion protein is essential for the biomedical research and the treatment of prion diseases. Particularly, the characterization of cofactors interacting with prion protein might provide new diagnostic and therapeutic strategies.

Interaction between misfolded PrP and the ubiquitin-proteasome system in prion-mediated neurodegeneration

Prion diseases are associated with the conformational conversion of cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) to pathological β-sheet isoforms (PrP(Sc)), which is the infectious agent beyond comprehension. Increasing evidence indicated that an unknown toxic gain of function of PrP(sc) underlies neuronal death. Conversely, strong evidence indicated that cellular prion protein might be directly cytotoxic by mediating neurotoxic signaling of β-sheet-rich conformers independent of prion replication. Furthermore, the common properties of β-sheet-rich isoform such as PrP(Sc) and β amyloid protein become the lynchpin that interprets the general pathological mechanism of protein misfolding diseases. Dysfunction of the ubiquitin-proteasome system (UPS) has been implicated in various protein misfolding diseases. However, the mechanisms of this impairment remain unknown in many cases. In prion disease, prion-infected mouse brains have increased levels of ubiquitin conjugates, which correlate with decreased proteasome function. Both PrP(C) and PrP(Sc) accumulate in cells after proteasome inhibition, which leads to increased cell death. A direct interaction between 20S core particle and PrP isoforms was demonstrated. Here we review the ability of misfolded PrP and UPS to affect each other, which might contribute to the pathological features of prion-mediated neurodegeneration.

Differential molecular chaperone response associated with various mouse adapted scrapie strains

Prionoses are a group of neurodegenerative diseases characterized by misfolding of cellular prion protein (PrP(C)) and accumulation of its diseases specific conformer PrP(Sc) in the brain and neuropathologically, they can be associated with presence or absence of PrP amyloid deposits. Functional molecular chaperones (MCs) that constitute the unfolded protein response include heat shock proteins and glucose-regulated protein families. They protect intracellular milieu against various stress conditions including accumulation of misfolded proteins and oxidative stress, typical of neurodegenerative diseases. Little is known about the role of MCs in pathogenesis of prionoses in mammalian prion model systems. In this study we characterized MCs response pattern in mice infected with various mouse adapted scrapie strains. Rather than uniform upregulation of MCs, we encountered two distinctly different patterns of MCs response distinguishing ME7 and 87V strains from 22L and 139A strains. ME7 and 87V strains are known for the induction of amyloid deposition in infected animals, while in mice infected with 22L and 139A strains amyloid deposits are absent. MCs response pattern similar to that associated with amyloidogenic ME7 and 87V strains was also observed in APPPS1-21 Alzheimer's transgenic mice, which represent an aggressive model of cerebral amyloidosis caused by β-amyloid deposition. Our results highlight the probability that different mechanisms of MCs regulation exist driven by amyloidogenic and non-amyloidogenic nature of prion strains.

Proteomic analysis of prion diseases: creating clarity or causing confusion?

Prion diseases, or transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, are progressive, fatal neurodegenerative diseases. There are both human and animal forms of the disease and all are associated with the conversion of a normal host-coded cellular prion protein (PrP(C) ) into an abnormal protease-resistant isoform (PrP(Sc) ). Although methodologies are sensitive and specific for postmortem disease diagnosis, the use of PrP(Sc) as a preclinical or general biomarker for surveillance is difficult, due to the fact that it is present in extremely small amounts in accessible tissues or body fluids such as blood, urine, saliva, and cerebrospinal fluid. Recently, amplification techniques have been developed, which have enabled increased sensitivity for PrP(Sc) detection. However, it has recently been reported that proteinase K sensitive, pathological isoforms of PrP may have a significant role in the pathogenesis of some prion diseases. Accordingly, the development of new diagnostic tests that do not rely on PrP(Sc) and proteinase K digestion is desirable. The search for biomarkers (other than PrP(Sc) ) as tools for diagnosis of prion diseases has a long history. Ideally biomarkers able to detect all transmissible spongiform encephalopathies, even at preclinical stages of infection are desirable but not yet possible due to the heterogeneity of the disease and lengthy disease progression. Recent advances in neuroproteomics have led to an overwhelming amount of information, which may offer insight on protein-protein interactions. While the amount of data obtained is impressive, the ability to relate it to the disease and validating its usefulness in diagnostic biomarker development remains a formidable challenge.

Proteasomal dysfunction and endoplasmic reticulum stress enhance trafficking of prion protein aggregates through the secretory pathway and increase accumulation of pathologic prion protein

A conformational change of the cellular prion protein (PrP(c)) underlies formation of PrP(Sc), which is closely associated with pathogenesis and transmission of prion diseases. The precise conformational prerequisites and the cellular environment necessary for this post-translational process remain to be completely elucidated. At steady state, glycosylated PrP(c) is found primarily at the cell surface, whereas a minor fraction of the population is disposed of by the ER-associated degradation-proteasome pathway. However, chronic ER stress conditions and proteasomal dysfunctions lead to accumulation of aggregation-prone PrP molecules in the cytosol and to neurodegeneration. In this study, we challenged different cell lines by inducing ER stress or inhibiting proteasomal activity and analyzed the subsequent repercussion on PrP metabolism, focusing on PrP in the secretory pathway. Both events led to enhanced detection of PrP aggregates and a significant increase of PrP(Sc) in persistently prion-infected cells, which could be reversed by overexpression of proteins of the cellular quality control. Remarkably, upon proteasomal impairment, an increased fraction of misfolded, fully glycosylated PrP molecules traveled through the secretory pathway and reached the plasma membrane. These findings suggest a novel pathway that possibly provides additional substrate and template necessary for prion formation when protein clearance by the proteasome is impaired.

Calreticulin inhibits prion protein PrP-(23-98) aggregation in vitro

Because prion protein PrP-(23-98) was recently found to polymerize into amyloid-like and proteinase K-resistant spherical aggregates in the presence of NADPH plus copper ions, we tested to determine whether calreticulin (CRT) inhibits PrP-(23-98) aggregation in vitro. The results indicated that CRT suppressed PrP-(23-98) aggregation, and that CRT-mediated solubilization occurred in the aggregates.

Prion protein misfolding affects calcium homeostasis and sensitizes cells to endoplasmic reticulum stress

Prion-related disorders (PrDs) are fatal neurodegenerative disorders characterized by progressive neuronal impairment as well as the accumulation of an abnormally folded and protease resistant form of the cellular prion protein, termed PrP^RES. Altered endoplasmic reticulum (ER) homeostasis is associated with the occurrence of neurodegeneration in sporadic, infectious and familial forms of PrDs. The ER operates as a major intracellular calcium store, playing a crucial role in pathological events related to neuronal dysfunction and death. Here we investigated the possible impact of PrP misfolding on ER calcium homeostasis in infectious and familial models of PrDs. Neuro2A cells chronically infected with scrapie prions showed decreased ER-calcium content that correlated with a stronger upregulation of UPR-inducible chaperones, and a higher sensitivity to ER stress-induced cell death. Overexpression of the calcium pump SERCA stimulated calcium release and increased the neurotoxicity observed after exposure of cells to brain-derived infectious PrP^RES. Furthermore, expression of PrP mutants that cause hereditary Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease or fatal familial insomnia led to accumulation of PrP^RES and their partial retention at the ER, associated with a drastic decrease of ER calcium content and higher susceptibility to ER stress. Finally, similar results were observed when a transmembrane form of PrP was expressed, which is proposed as a neurotoxic intermediate. Our results suggest that alterations in calcium homeostasis and increased susceptibility to ER stress are common pathological features of both infectious and familial PrD models.

Redox control of prion and disease pathogenesis

Imbalance of brain metal homeostasis and associated oxidative stress by redox-active metals like iron and copper is an important trigger of neurotoxicity in several neurodegenerative conditions, including prion disorders. Whereas some reports attribute this to end-stage disease, others provide evidence for specific mechanisms leading to brain metal dyshomeostasis during disease progression. In prion disorders, imbalance of brain-iron homeostasis is observed before end-stage disease and worsens with disease progression, implicating iron-induced oxidative stress in disease pathogenesis. This is an unexpected observation, because the underlying cause of brain pathology in all prion disorders is PrP-scrapie (PrP(Sc)), a beta-sheet-rich conformation of a normal glycoprotein, the prion protein (PrP(C)). Whether brain-iron dyshomeostasis occurs because of gain of toxic function by PrP(Sc) or loss of normal function of PrP(C) remains unclear. In this review, we summarize available evidence suggesting the involvement of oxidative stress in prion-disease pathogenesis. Subsequently, we review the biology of PrP(C) to highlight its possible role in maintaining brain metal homeostasis during health and the contribution of PrP(Sc) in inducing brain metal imbalance with disease progression. Finally, we discuss possible therapeutic avenues directed at restoring brain metal homeostasis and alleviating metal-induced oxidative stress in prion disorders.

Iron content of ferritin modulates its uptake by intestinal epithelium: implications for co-transport of prions

The spread of Chronic Wasting Disease (CWD) in the deer and elk population has caused serious public health concerns due to its potential to infect farm animals and humans. Like other prion disorders such a sporadic Creutzfeldt-Jakob-disease of humans and Mad Cow Disease of cattle, CWD is caused by PrP-scrapie (PrP^Sc), a β-sheet rich isoform of a normal cell surface glycoprotein, the prion protein (PrP^C). Since PrP^Sc is sufficient to cause infection and neurotoxicity if ingested by a susceptible host, it is important to understand the mechanism by which it crosses the stringent epithelial cell barrier of the small intestine. Possible mechanisms include co-transport with ferritin in ingested food and uptake by dendritic cells. Since ferritin is ubiquitously expressed and shares considerable homology among species, co-transport of PrP^Sc with ferritin can result in cross-species spread with deleterious consequences. We have used a combination of in vitro and in vivo models of intestinal epithelial cell barrier to understand the role of ferritin in mediating PrP^Sc uptake and transport. In this report, we demonstrate that PrP^Sc and ferritin from CWD affected deer and elk brains and scrapie from sheep resist degradation by digestive enzymes, and are transcytosed across a tight monolayer of human epithelial cells with significant efficiency. Likewise, ferritin from hamster brains is taken up by mouse intestinal epithelial cells in vivo, indicating that uptake of ferritin is not limited by species differences as described for prions. More importantly, the iron content of ferritin determines its efficiency of uptake and transport by Caco-2 cells and mouse models, providing insight into the mechanism(s) of ferritin and PrP^Sc uptake by intestinal epithelial cells.

Prion protein misfolding

The crucial event in the development of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) is the conformational change of a host-encoded membrane protein - the cellular PrP^C - into a disease associated, fibril-forming isoform PrP^Sc. This conformational transition from the α-helix-rich cellular form into the mainly β-sheet containing counterpart initiates an ‘autocatalytic’ reaction which leads to the accumulation of amyloid fibrils in the central nervous system (CNS) and to neurodegeneration, a hallmark of TSEs.

The exact molecular mechanisms which lead to the conformational change are still unknown. It also remains to be brought to light how a polypeptide chain can adopt at least two stable conformations. This review focuses on structural aspects of the prion protein with regard to protein-protein interactions and the initiation of prion protein misfolding. It therefore highlights parts of the protein which might play a notable role in the conformational transition from PrP^C to PrP^Sc and consequently in inducing a fatal chain reaction of protein misfolding. Furthermore, features of different proteins, which are able to adopt insoluble fibrillar states under certain circumstances, are compared to PrP in an attempt to understand the unique characteristics of prion diseases.

Loss of anti-Bax function in Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker syndrome-associated prion protein mutants

Previously, we have shown the loss of anti-Bax function in Creutzfeldt Jakob disease (CJD)-associated prion protein (PrP) mutants that are unable to generate cytosolic PrP (CyPrP). To determine if the anti-Bax function of PrP modulates the manifestation of prion diseases, we further investigated the anti-Bax function of eight familial Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker Syndrome (GSS)-associated PrP mutants. These PrP mutants contained their respective methionine (^M) or valine (^V) at codon 129. All of the mutants lost their ability to prevent Bax-mediated chromatin condensation or DNA fragmentation in primary human neurons. In the breast carcinoma MCF-7 cells, the F198S^V, D202N^V, P102L^V and Q217R^V retained, whereas the P102L^M, P105L^V, Y145stop^M and Q212P^M PrP mutants lost their ability to inhibit Bax-mediated condensed chromatin. The inhibition of Bax-mediated condensed chromatin depended on the ability of the mutants to generate cytosolic PrP. However, except for the P102L^V, none of the mutants significantly inhibited Bax-mediated caspase activation. These results show that the cytosolic PrP generated from the GSS mutants is not as efficient as wild type PrP in inhibiting Bax-mediated cell death. Furthermore, these results indicate that the anti-Bax function is also disrupted in GSS-associated PrP mutants and is not associated with the difference between CJD and GSS.