1
|
Nikitin D, Choi S, Mican J, Toul M, Ryu WS, Damborsky J, Mikulik R, Kim DE. Development and Testing of Thrombolytics in Stroke. J Stroke 2021; 23:12-36. [PMID: 33600700 PMCID: PMC7900387 DOI: 10.5853/jos.2020.03349] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2020] [Accepted: 09/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite recent advances in recanalization therapy, mechanical thrombectomy will never be a treatment for every ischemic stroke because access to mechanical thrombectomy is still limited in many countries. Moreover, many ischemic strokes are caused by occlusion of cerebral arteries that cannot be reached by intra-arterial catheters. Reperfusion using thrombolytic agents will therefore remain an important therapy for hyperacute ischemic stroke. However, thrombolytic drugs have shown limited efficacy and notable hemorrhagic complication rates, leaving room for improvement. A comprehensive understanding of basic and clinical research pipelines as well as the current status of thrombolytic therapy will help facilitate the development of new thrombolytics. Compared with alteplase, an ideal thrombolytic agent is expected to provide faster reperfusion in more patients; prevent re-occlusions; have higher fibrin specificity for selective activation of clot-bound plasminogen to decrease bleeding complications; be retained in the blood for a longer time to minimize dosage and allow administration as a single bolus; be more resistant to inhibitors; and be less antigenic for repetitive usage. Here, we review the currently available thrombolytics, strategies for the development of new clot-dissolving substances, and the assessment of thrombolytic efficacies in vitro and in vivo.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Dmitri Nikitin
- International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's Hospital, Brno, Czech Republic.,Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Seungbum Choi
- Molecular Imaging and Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea
| | - Jan Mican
- International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's Hospital, Brno, Czech Republic.,Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Neurology, St. Anne's Hospital and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Toul
- International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's Hospital, Brno, Czech Republic.,Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Wi-Sun Ryu
- Department of Neurology, Dongguk University Ilsan Hospital, Goyang, Korea
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's Hospital, Brno, Czech Republic.,Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Robert Mikulik
- International Centre for Clinical Research, St. Anne's Hospital, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Neurology, St. Anne's Hospital and Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Dong-Eog Kim
- Molecular Imaging and Neurovascular Research Laboratory, Department of Neurology, Dongguk University College of Medicine, Goyang, Korea.,Department of Neurology, Dongguk University Ilsan Hospital, Goyang, Korea
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mican J, Toul M, Bednar D, Damborsky J. Structural Biology and Protein Engineering of Thrombolytics. Comput Struct Biotechnol J 2019; 17:917-938. [PMID: 31360331 PMCID: PMC6637190 DOI: 10.1016/j.csbj.2019.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Myocardial infarction and ischemic stroke are the most frequent causes of death or disability worldwide. Due to their ability to dissolve blood clots, the thrombolytics are frequently used for their treatment. Improving the effectiveness of thrombolytics for clinical uses is of great interest. The knowledge of the multiple roles of the endogenous thrombolytics and the fibrinolytic system grows continuously. The effects of thrombolytics on the alteration of the nervous system and the regulation of the cell migration offer promising novel uses for treating neurodegenerative disorders or targeting cancer metastasis. However, secondary activities of thrombolytics may lead to life-threatening side-effects such as intracranial bleeding and neurotoxicity. Here we provide a structural biology perspective on various thrombolytic enzymes and their key properties: (i) effectiveness of clot lysis, (ii) affinity and specificity towards fibrin, (iii) biological half-life, (iv) mechanisms of activation/inhibition, and (v) risks of side effects. This information needs to be carefully considered while establishing protein engineering strategies aiming at the development of novel thrombolytics. Current trends and perspectives are discussed, including the screening for novel enzymes and small molecules, the enhancement of fibrin specificity by protein engineering, the suppression of interactions with native receptors, liposomal encapsulation and targeted release, the application of adjuvants, and the development of improved production systems.
Collapse
Key Words
- EGF, Epidermal growth factor domain
- F, Fibrin binding finger domain
- Fibrinolysis
- K, Kringle domain
- LRP1, Low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 1
- MR, Mannose receptor
- NMDAR, N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor
- P, Proteolytic domain
- PAI-1, Inhibitor of tissue plasminogen activator
- Plg, Plasminogen
- Plm, Plasmin
- RAP, Receptor antagonist protein
- SAK, Staphylokinase
- SK, Streptokinase
- Staphylokinase
- Streptokinase
- Thrombolysis
- Tissue plasminogen activator
- Urokinase
- t-PA, Tissue plasminogen activator
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jan Mican
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Toul
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - David Bednar
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5/A13, 625 00 Brno, Czech Republic
- International Clinical Research Center, St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, 656 91 Brno, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Huish S, Thelwell C, Longstaff C. Activity Regulation by Fibrinogen and Fibrin of Streptokinase from Streptococcus Pyogenes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170936. [PMID: 28125743 PMCID: PMC5268773 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Streptokinase is a virulence factor of streptococci and acts as a plasminogen activator to generate the serine protease plasmin which promotes bacterial metastasis. Streptokinase isolated from group C streptococci has been used therapeutically as a thrombolytic agent for many years and its mechanism of action has been extensively studied. However, group A streptococci are associated with invasive and potentially fatal infections, but less detail is available on the mechanism of action of streptokinase from these bacteria. We have expressed recombinant streptokinase from a group C strain to investigate the therapeutic molecule (here termed rSK-H46A) and a molecule isolated from a cluster 2a strain from group A (rSK-M1GAS) which is known to produce the fibrinogen binding, M1 protein, and is associated with life-threatening disease. Detailed enzyme kinetic models have been prepared which show how fibrinogen-streptokinase-plasminogen complexes regulate plasmin generation, and also the effect of fibrin interactions. As is the case with rSK-H46A our data with rSK-M1GAS support a "trigger and bullet" mechanism requiring the initial formation of SK•plasminogen complexes which are replaced by more active SK•plasmin as plasmin becomes available. This model includes the important fibrinogen interactions that stimulate plasmin generation. In a fibrin matrix rSK-M1GAS has a 24 fold higher specific activity than the fibrin-specific thrombolytic agent, tissue plasminogen activator, and 15 fold higher specific activity than rSK-H46A. However, in vivo fibrin specificity would be undermined by fibrinogen stimulation. Given the observed importance of M1 surface receptors or released M1 protein to virulence of cluster 2a strain streptococci, studies on streptokinase activity regulation by fibrin and fibrinogen may provide additional routes to addressing bacterial invasion and infectious diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sian Huish
- Component development laboratory, NHS Blood and Transplant, Cambridge Donor Centre, Cambridge, United Kingdom
| | - Craig Thelwell
- Biotherapeutics Section, National Institute for Biological Standard and Control, South Mimms, Herts, United Kingdom
| | - Colin Longstaff
- Biotherapeutics Section, National Institute for Biological Standard and Control, South Mimms, Herts, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Peetermans M, Vanassche T, Liesenborghs L, Lijnen RH, Verhamme P. Bacterial pathogens activate plasminogen to breach tissue barriers and escape from innate immunity. Crit Rev Microbiol 2015; 42:866-82. [PMID: 26485450 DOI: 10.3109/1040841x.2015.1080214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Both coagulation and fibrinolysis are tightly connected with the innate immune system. Infection and inflammation cause profound alterations in the otherwise well-controlled balance between coagulation and fibrinolysis. Many pathogenic bacteria directly exploit the host's hemostatic system to increase their virulence. Here, we review the capacity of bacteria to activate plasminogen. The resulting proteolytic activity allows them to breach tissue barriers and evade innate immune defense, thus promoting bacterial spreading. Yersinia pestis, streptococci of group A, C and G and Staphylococcus aureus produce a specific bacterial plasminogen activator. Moreover, surface plasminogen receptors play an established role in pneumococcal, borrelial and group B streptococcal infections. This review summarizes the mechanisms of bacterial activation of host plasminogen and the role of the fibrinolytic system in infections caused by these pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marijke Peetermans
- a Center for Molecular and Vascular Biology, KU Leuven , Leuven , Belgium
| | - Thomas Vanassche
- a Center for Molecular and Vascular Biology, KU Leuven , Leuven , Belgium
| | | | - Roger H Lijnen
- a Center for Molecular and Vascular Biology, KU Leuven , Leuven , Belgium
| | - Peter Verhamme
- a Center for Molecular and Vascular Biology, KU Leuven , Leuven , Belgium
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Valentiny C, Dirschmid H, Lhotta K. Streptococcus uberis and Staphylococcus aureus forefoot and blood stream co-infection in a haemodialysis patient: a case report. BMC Nephrol 2015; 16:73. [PMID: 26018417 PMCID: PMC4446856 DOI: 10.1186/s12882-015-0069-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2014] [Accepted: 05/20/2015] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Streptococcus uberis, the most frequent cause of mastitis in lactating cows, is considered non-pathogenic for humans. Only a few case reports have described human infections with this microorganism, which is notoriously difficult to identify. CASE PRESENTATION We report the case of a 75-year-old male haemodialysis patient, who developed a severe foot infection with osteomyelitis and bacteraemia. Both Streptococcus uberis and Staphylococcus aureus were identified in wound secretion and blood samples using mass spectrometry. The presence of Streptococcus uberis was confirmed by superoxide dismutase A sequencing. The patient recovered after amputation of the forefoot and antibiotic treatment with ampicillin/sulbactam. He had probably acquired the infection while walking barefoot on cattle pasture land. CONCLUSION This is the first case report of a human infection with Streptococcus uberis with identification of the microorganism using modern molecular technology. We propose that Staphylococcus aureus co-infection was a prerequisite for deep wound and bloodstream infection with Streptococcus uberis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Valentiny
- Department of Nephrology and Dialysis, Academic Teaching Hospital Feldkirch, Carinagasse 47, A-6800, Feldkirch, Austria.
| | - Harald Dirschmid
- Institute for Pathology, Academic Teaching Hospital Feldkirch, Feldkirch, Austria.
| | - Karl Lhotta
- Department of Nephrology and Dialysis, Academic Teaching Hospital Feldkirch, Carinagasse 47, A-6800, Feldkirch, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Singh S, Rathore YS, Bhando T, Hade MD, Ashish, Dikshit KL. Bilobed shape of PadA reveals the connectivity from single to multi-domain bacterial plasminogen activators. Int J Biol Macromol 2015; 78:370-8. [PMID: 25900858 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2015.04.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2015] [Revised: 04/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/11/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The bacterial plasminogen activator, PadA activates bovine, ovine and caprine plasminogen but remains inert toward human plasminogen. It shows high sequence homology with human plasminogen activator, staphylokinase (SAK) but generates active-site in bovine plasminogen non-proteolytically, similar to streptokinase (SK). To examine the structural requirements for the function of this unique cofactor, attempts were made to visualize solution structure of the PadA using small-angle X-ray scattering (SAXS) data and compare its shape profile with structural models based on crystal structures of staphylokinase and streptokinase domains. The bilobal shape solved for the PadA matched closely with the structural model of α-domain of SK rather than its sequence homolog, SAK. The SAXS based solution structure of the PadA exhibited an extra volume and high mobility around Y(90)DKAEK(95) and P(104)ITES(108) loop regions that were found to play a crucial role in its cofactor function. Structure and sequence analysis of bacterial cofactors and mammalian plasminogens displayed evolutionary conservation of crucial complimentary amino acids required for making a functional binary activator complex between bacterial plasminogen activators and their cognate partner plasminogen. These studies highlighted the importance of structure-function related evolutionary strategies adopted by bacteria for exploiting mammalian plasminogen activation system and its understanding may help in designing and the development of new thrombolytic agents for clinical interventions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satish Singh
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India
| | | | - Timsy Bhando
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India
| | - Mangesh Dattu Hade
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India
| | - Ashish
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India.
| | - Kanak L Dikshit
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh 160036, India.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Singh S, Bhando T, Dikshit KL. Fibrin-targeted plasminogen activation by plasminogen activator, PadA, from Streptococcus dysgalactiae. Protein Sci 2014; 23:714-22. [PMID: 24639287 DOI: 10.1002/pro.2455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2014] [Revised: 03/14/2014] [Accepted: 03/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Bacterial plasminogen activators differ from each other in their mechanism of plasminogen activation besides their host specificity. Three-domain streptokinase (SK) and two-domain PauA generate nonproteolytic active site center in their cognate partner plasminogen but their binary activator complexes are resistant to α2-antiplasmin (a2AP) inhibition causing nonspecific plasminogen activation in plasma. In contrast, single-domain plasminogen activator, staphylokinase (SAK), requires proteolytic cleavage of human plasminogen into plasmin for the active site generation, and this activator complex is inhibited by a2AP. The single-domain plasminogen activator, PadA, from Streptococcus dysgalatiae, having close sequence and possible structure homology with SAK, was recently reported to activate bovine Pg in a nonproteolytic manner similar to SK. We report hereby that the binary activator complex of PadA with bovine plasminogen is inhibited by a2AP and PadA is recycled from this complex to catalyze the activation of plasminogen in the clot environment, where it is completely protected from a2AP inhibition. Catalytic efficiency of the activator complex formed by PadA and bovine plasminogen is amplified several folds in the presence of cyanogen bromide digested fibrinogen but not by intact fibrinogen indicating that PadA may be highly efficient at the fibrin surface. The present study, thus, demonstrates that PadA is a unique single-domain plasminogen activator that activates bovine plasminogen in a fibrin-targeted manner like SAK. The sequence optimization by PadA for acquiring the characteristics of both SK and SAK may be exploited for the development of efficient and fibrin-specific plasminogen activators for thrombolytic therapy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Satish Singh
- CSIR-Institute of Microbial Technology, Sector 39A, Chandigarh, 160036, India
| | | | | |
Collapse
|